A SEMINAR ON THOUGHT AND ITS DISORDERS INCLUDING BRIEF DISCUSSION ON FORMATION OF CONCEPTS, ALGORITHM & HEURISTICS.

1. BY
DR. SUBRATA NASKAR
Email : nsubrata09@gmail.com

2. PLAN OF PRESENTATION
• INTRODUCTION
• DEFINITION OF THOUGHT
• THINKING PROCESS
• TYPES OF THINKING
• CONCEPT
• PROBLEM SOLVING
• DECISION MAKING
• CREATIVE THINKING
• DISORDERS OF THOUGHT
• RECENT ADVANCES
• BIBLIOGRAPHY

3. INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS THOUGHT ?

4. INTRODUCTION
• THOUGHT CAN REFER TO THE IDEAS OR ARRANGEMENTS OF IDEAS THAT
RESULT FROM THINKING.
• THINKING REPRESENTS THE MOST COMPLEX FORM OF HUMAN
BEHAVIOUR, THE HIGHEST FORM OF MENTAL ACTIVITY.
• ALL HUMAN ACHIEVEMENTS AND PROGRESS ARE SIMPLY THE PRODUCTS
OF THOUGHT.

5. THINKING IS MORE THAN LANGUAGE, AND LANGUAGE IS
MORE THAN THINKING
- PHILIP.S.DALE

6. THINKING CAN BE DEFINED AS THE COGNITIVE REARRANGEMENT OR
MANIPULATION OF BOTH INFORMATION FROM THE ENVIRONMENT
AND THE SYMBOLS STORED IN LONG TERM MEMORY

7. THE THINKING PROCESS
• REQUIREMENTS:
• WORDS
• LANGUAGE
• IMAGES LANGUAGE
WORDSIMAGES
THOUGHT

8. THE THINKING PROCESS
THE THINKING PROCESS IS BY THE USE OF SYMBOLS IN THE FORM OF WORDS,LANGUAGE AND IMAGES.
A ‘SYMBOL’ REPRESENTS , OR STANDS FOR SOME EVENT OR ITEM IN THE WORLD, AS WE SEE IMAGES
AND LANGUAGE SYMBOLS ARE USED IN MUCH OF OUR THINKING.

9. LANGUAGE AND THINKING
• WE, THINK USING LANGUAGE SYMBOLS AS A TOOL OF THINKING PROCESS
• IN WHICH SYMBOLS ARE, WORDS AND RULES OF GRAMMAR.
• THE WORDS, THEIR MEANINGS, AND THE RULES FOR JOINING THEM TOGETHER ARE STORED IN OUR
SEMANTIC LONG-TERM MEMORIES.
• SOME THEORISTS TAKE A MORE EXTREME VIEW OF THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN THINKING PROCESS
• THAT LANGUAGE CAN ACTUALLY DETERMINE THE THOUGHTS WE ARE CAPABLE OF THINKING.
• THIS IS CALLED AS THE LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY HYPOTHESIS
• ALSO DEAF PEOPLE WHOSE VERBAL LANGUAGE ABILITIES ARE MINIMAL, SEEMS TO HAVE NONVERBAL
LANGUAGE TOOL OF THOUGHT; THEY CAN THINK IN SIGNS (VERNON & KOH, 1971: STUCKLESS & BIRCH,
1966)

10. LANGUAGE AND THINKING
“ TALKING TO YOURSELF UNDER YOUR BREATH ”
• LANGUAGE IS SO MUCH INVOLVED IN THINKING PROCESS THAT THE IDEA AROSE IN PSYCHOLOGY THAT
THINKING IS ACTUALLY A KIND OF INNER SPEECH OR “ TALKING TO YOURSELF UNDER YOUR BREATH ”
• ACCORDING TO THIS IDEA PEOPLE MAKE SMALL MOVEMENTS OF VOCAL APPARATUS WHILE THINKING
AND NUMBER OF EXPERIMENTS HAVE INDICATED THAT MOVEMENTS OF VOCAL APPARATUS MAY
ACCOMPANY THOUGHTS, BUT ALSO HAVE MADE IT CLEAR THAT SUCH MOVEMENTS ARE NOT NECESSARY
FOR THINKING (SMITH ET AL, 1947)

11. IMAGES AND THINKING
• IMAGES ARE REMARKABLY USED IN THINKING ALONG WITH WORDS AS SYMBOLS FOR E.G. MANY
PEOPLE MAKE A VISUAL ROAD MAP TO FIND AND DESCRIBE HOW THEY WILL GO FROM ONE PLACE
TO ANOTHER (IN AN KNOWN CITY OR PLACE)
• WHEN WE USE IMAGES TO THINK, THEY ARE USUALLY NOT COMPLETE. (HUTTENLOCHER, 1973)
• THIS INCOMPLETE IMAGES MOST OF US USE IN THINKING, SEEMS TO BE CONSTRUCTED FROM
ELEMENTS STORED IN LONG TERM MEMORY.
• ALSO THIS IMAGES CONSTRUCTED CAN BE OF ANY SIZE OR COLOUR OR SHAPE, ETC.
• THIS VARIATIONS ADD TO THE EASE WITH WHICH INFORMATION IS FOUND IN AN IMAGE. (KOSSIYN,
1975, 1983)
• E.G. AN ELEPHANT CAN BE IMAGINED AS THE SIZE OF A MOUSE OR A MOUSE IMAGINED AS A SIZE OF AN ELEPHANT

12. CONCEPTS
WHAT IS CONCEPT ?

13. CONCEPTS
• CONCEPTS ARE IMPORTANT LANGUAGE SYMBOLS USED IN THINKING.
• A CONCEPT IS A SYMBOLIC CONSTRUCTION THAT REPRESENT SOME COMMON AND GENERAL
FEATURE OR FEATURES OF MANY OBJECTS OR EVENTS.
• EXAMPLES ARE “MAN”, “RED”, “TRIANGLE”, “MOTIVATION”, “ATOM”, “ANGER”, ETC.
• IN FACT MOST OF THE NOUNS IN OUR VOCABULARY ARE NAMES OF CONCEPTS, EXCEPT
PROPER NOUNS– NAMES OF SPECIFIC THINGS OR PERSON.
• ABILITY TO FORM CONCEPTS ENABLES US TO CLASSIFY THINGS INTO CATEGORIES.
• E.G. WITH A CONCEPT OF RED WE CAN SORT OBLECTS INTO RED AND NON-RED,WITH A CONCEPT OF FRUIT WE
CAN SORT OBJECTS INTO FRUIT OR NON-FRUIT, CONCEPTS WE SELECT- GIVES US BASE FOR CLASSIFICATIONS
WHEN A CLASSIFICATION HAS BEEN MADE, WE TEND TO BEHAVE TOWARDS AND THINK ABOUT,
THE MEMBERS OF THE CLASS.
THUS, CONCEPTS ARE THE CONVENIENT TOOLS TO USE IN THINKING AND SOLVING PROBLEMS

14. HOW ARE CONCEPTS FORMED ?

15. • BASIC/NATURAL CONCEPT:
• SOME CONCEPTS ARE “BASIC” AND “ NATURAL” WHICH ARE ACQUIRED EASILY, AND APPEAR IN
THINKING VERY EARLY IN LIFE
• E.G. DIVISION OF COLOURS ACCORDING TO THEIR SPECTRUMS LIKE RED, GREEN, YELLOW.
• BY DISCRIMINATION LEARNING:
• MANY OF THE CONCEPTS ARE ACQUIRED MORE SLOWLY AND WITH EFFORTS, WHERE DISCRIMINATION
LEARNING PLAYS A ROLE. THIS TYPE OF LEARNING CONCEPTS OCCURS WITH RESPONSE TO REWARDS
OR REINFORCEMENTS.
• E.G. SAYING “RIGHT !” WHEN A CHILD SAYS “APPLE” AND POINTS TOWARDS ONE, AND NOT AT SOMETHING ELSE.
• BY DEFINITION:
• SOME CONCEPTS ARE ACQUIRED BY LEARNING “DEFINITIONS”,
• DEFINITIONS HELP US ACQUIRE CONCEPTS BY DESCRIBING THEM IN TERMS OF OTHER WORDS OR
CONCEPTS WITH WHICH WE ARE ALREADY FAMILIAR.

16. TYPES OF THINKING

17. FREUD’S DIVISION OF THOUGHT:
• PRIMARY PROCESS
(RIGHT BRAIN THINKING)
• FEATURES:
• DISREGARDS LOGIC
• PERMITS SIMULTANEOUS CONTRADICTION
• DOMINATED BY WISH AND FANTASY
• USES SYMBOLS,IMAGERY CONDENSATION & CONCRETISATION IN ITS ORGANISATION
• A JUMBLED AND INCOHERENT STYLE OF THINKING
• WHERE FOUND ?
• FOUND IN DREAMS
• YOUNG CHILDREN
• PSYCHOTIC STATES

18. FREUD’S DIVISION OF THOUGHT
SECONDARY PROCESS
FEATURES:
• CHARACTERIZED BY LOGIC.
• IDEAS FOLLOW ONE ANOTHER IN SEQUENCE THAT IS UNDERSTABLE TO THE LISTENER
WHERE FOUND ?
• FOUND IN NON DREAMY STATE
• ADULTS
• NON PSYCHOTIC STATES
EXAMPLE: The ability to think abstractly and to think in detail about future plan

19. NON FREUDIAN
NON FREUDIAN TYPOLOGY OF THOUGHT
FANTASY
THINKING
IMAGINATIVE
THINKING
CONCEPTUAL
THINKING
AUTISIC
THINKING
ABSTRACT
THINKING
CONCRETE
THINKING

20. FANTASY
THINKING
THINKING BY ESCAPING FROM OR DENYING REALITY
NORMAL:DAY DREAMING
PATHOLOGICAL:DISSOCIATIVE AND PSYCHOTIC STATES
• FANTASY IS USUALLY UNDERSTOOD TO BE THE CREATION OF IMAGES OR IDEAS WHICH HAVE NO EXTERNAL REALITY.
HOWEVER, FANTASY THINKING MAY ALSO REVEAL ITSELF IN DENIAL OF EXTERNAL EVENTS.
• THE OBSERVATIONS ON WHICH THE PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLATION OF EGO DEFENCE MECHANISM HAVE BEEN DESCRIBED ARE
RELEVANT IN THIS CONTEXT.
• THE SLIPS OF THE TONGUE, OR THE ‘FORGETTING’ OF THE EMOTIONALLY LADEN WORDS IS NOT ACCIDENTAL, IT IS A FORM
OF SELF-DECEPTION.
• THE OBVIOUS, SIGNIFICANT, BUT UNPLEASANT, OBJECT OF PERCEPTION MAY BE ‘OVER-LOOKED’, AND THIS OFTEN REVELS
FANTASY DENIAL.

21. ABSTRACT
THINKING
THINKING CHARACTERISED BY THE ABILITY TO GRASP THE ESSENTIALS OF A WHOLE
OR BREAK A WHOLE INTO ITS PARTS,AND TO DISCERN COMMON PROPERTIES

22. IN THIS THINKING FANTASY AND MEMORY ARE USED TOGHETHER , GENERATES
PLANS FOR EVERYDAY LIFE AND UTILIZE THE SUCCESSION OF IDEAS THAT FILLS
CONSCIOUSNESS.
DOES NOT GO BEYOND THE RATIONAL OR THE POSSIBLE.
IMAGINATIVE
THINKING

23. CONCEPTUAL
THINKING
USES LOGIC TO SOLVE PROBLEMS

24. CONCRETE
THINKING
THINKING CHARACTERISED BY ACTUAL THINGS,EVENTS,AND IMMEDIATE EXPERIENCE RATHER
THAN BY ABSTRACTIONS
FOUND IN
SCHIZOPHRENIA
COGNITIVE MENTAL DISORDER

25. AUTISTIC
THINKING
THINKING IN WHICH THE THOUGHTS ARE NARCISSISTIC AND EGOCENTRIC,WITH EMPHASIS ON SUBJECTIVITY RATHER THAN
OBJECTIVITY AND WITHOUT REGARD FOR REALITY
• IT MAY BE OF SHORT DURATION, OR IT MAY BECAME AN ESTABLISHED WAY OF LIFE.
• IT ALSO PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE WAY WE ALL CARRY OUT OUR DAY TO DAY ACTIVITIES.
• IT ALLOWS A PERSON TO ESCAPE FROM, OR DENY, REALITY; OR ALTERNATIVELY CONVERT REALITY INTO SOMETHING MORE TOLERABLE.
• BLEULER (1911) SAW THIS ISOLATION FROM THE REAL WORLD INTO AUTISTIC THINKING AS A CHARACTERISTIC OF SCHIZOPHRENIA.
• THIS TYPE OF THINKING IS ASSOCIATED TO
• PATHOLOGICAL LYING ( PSUDOLOGIA FANTASTICA )
• HYSTERICAL CONVERSIONS AND DISSOCIATION,
• DELUSION-LIKE IDEAS OCCURRING IN AFFECTIVE PSYCHOSES.
FOUND IN : SCHIZOPHRENIA AND AUTISTIC DISORDER

26. PROBLEM SOLVING
WHAT IS PROBLEM ?
“PROBLEM” IS DEFINED IN GENERAL AS IT IS
ANY CONFLICT OR DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ONE
SITUATION AND ANOTHER SITUATION WE
WISH TO PRODUCE OUR GOAL.
“THINKING” THAT WE DO IN PROBLEM
SOLVING IS GOAL DIRECTED, AND MOTIVATED.

27. PROBLEM SOLVING
WE USE INFORMATION AVAILABLE TO US,
FROM LONG-TERM MEMORY AND FROM THE
PERCEPTION OF THE PROBLEM SITUATION.
WE PROCESS THIS INFORMATION ACCORDING
TO RULES, THAT TELLS US WHAT WE CAN DO
AND CANNOT DO.
IN OTHER WORDS, MANY INSTANCES OF
PROBLEM SOLVING CAN BE CONSIDERED A
FORM OF RULE-GUIDED, MOTIVATED
INFORMATION PROCESSING (NEWELL &
SIMON, 1972)

28. RULES IN PROBLEM SOLVING
TWO MAJOR TYPES OF RULES IN PROBLEM SOLVING ARE

29. RULES IN PROBLEM SOLVING
IS A SET OF RULES WHICH, IF FOLLOWED CORRECTLY, WILL
GUARANTEE A SOLUTION TO A PROBLEM.
E.G. IN SOLVING MATHEMATICAL CALCULATIONS
STRATEGIES, USUALLY BASED ON OUR PAST EXPERIENCES WITH
PROBLEMS, THAT ARE LIKELY TO LEAD TO A SOLUTION BUT DO NOT
GUARANTEE SUCCESS.
E.G. COMMON STRATEGY OF BREAKING THE PROBLEM INTO
SMALLER SUB-PROBLEMS, WHICH BRINGS US LITTLE CLOSER TO END
GOAL.

30. DECISION MAKING
DECISION MAKING IS A KIND OF PROBLEM SOLVING IN WHICH WE
ARE PRESENTED WITH A NUMBER OF ALTERNATIVES AMONG
WHICH WE MUST CHOOSE.
PEOPLE MAKE DECISIONS THAT WILL MAXIMIZE SUBJECTIVELY
EXPECTED GAIN.

31. HEURISTIC IN DECISION MAKING
• REPRESENTATIVENESS: WE COMPARE AND SEE WHETHER THE CURRENT
SITUATION IS A REPRESENTATION OF SOMETHING WE HAVE ALREADY
EXPERIENCED
• AVAILABILITY: BECAUSE FREQUENT EVENTS ARE EASIER TO REMEMBER
THAN INFREQUENT ONES,EASILY REMEMBERED EVENTS ARE LIKELY TO BE
REPEATED IN DECISION MAKING.
• ADJUSTMENT: WE START WITH A CERTAIN SUBJECTIVE PROBABILITY AND
RAISE IT OR LOWER IT DEPENDING ON THE CIRCUMSTANCES

32. CREATIVE THINKING
THINKING SOMETHING NEW, PROVIDING
TO THE PROBLEMS SOME NEW SOLUTIONS
WHICH OTHER PEOPLE HAVE NOT
THOUGHT OF EARLIER.
THIS SUDDEN APPEARANCE OF NEW IDEA
IS CALLED INSIGHT

33. STAGES IN CREATIVE THINKING
1. PREPARATION: FORMULATION
OF THE PROBLEM AND
COLLECTION OF THE FACTS AND
MATERIALS CONSIDERED
NECESSARY FOR ITS SOLUTION
2. INCUBATION: TURNING AWAY
FROM THE PROBLEM, FAILING TO
SOLVE IT. BUT THE
UNCONSCIOUS THOUGHT
PROCESSES ARE STILL AT WORK
3. ILLUMINATION: SUDDEN
EMERGENCE OF AN IDEA TO THE
PROBLEM
4. EVALUATION: THE APPARENT
SOLUTION IS TESTED TO SEE IF IT
SATISFACTORILY SOLVES THE
PROBLEM
5. REVISION: MODIFICATION OF THE
SOLUTION OR SOLUTION OF MINOR
PROBLEMS TO CREATE A “ GOOD ”
NEW IDEA.

34. DISORDERS OF THOUGHT
DISORDERS
STREAM CONTENT FORMPOSSESSION

35. DISORDERS OF THOUGHT
STREAM
TEMPO CONTINUITY

36. DISORDERS OF THOUGHT
TEMPO CONTINUITY
FLIGHT OF IDEAS
INHIBITION
CIRCUMSTANTIALITY
PERSEVARATION
THOUGHT BLOCK

37. DISORDERS OF THOUGHT
FLIGHT OF IDEAS
• RAPID SUCCESSION OF FRAGMENTARY THOUGHTS OR SPEECH IN WHICH CONTENT
CHANGES ABRUPTLY AND SPEECH MAY BE INCOHERENT WITH NO DIRECTION OF
THINKING AND NO CONNECTION BETWEEN TWO THOUGHTS.
• PT’S SPEECH IS EASILY DIVERTED TO EXTERNAL STIMULI AND BY INTERNAL SUPERFICIAL
ASSOCIATION.
• ASSOCIATION BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE THOUGHTS IS BROUGHT ABOUT BY CHANCE
RELATIONSHIPS & VERBAL ASSOCIATIONS LIKE CLANG ASSOCIATION & PROVERBS,
MAXIMS & CLICHES
• TYPICAL OF MANIA AND ALSO FOUND IN : EXCITED SCHIZOPHRENICS, ORGANIC STATES-
HYPOTHALAMIC LESIONS.

38. DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF FLIGHT OF IDEAS
FOR EXAMPLE, A PERSON MIGHT SAY "LOOK AT THE SUN, SUN GIVES LIGHT, LIGHT IS BRIGHT, BRIGHT SKY, SKY
IS THE MIRROR OF HEAVEN.“

39. PROLIXITY
• A MARGINAL VARIETY OF FLIGHT OF IDEA WHERE DESPITE MANY IRRELEVANCES, THE
PATIENT IS ABLE TO RETURN TO THE TASK IN HAND.
• THE SPEED OF EMERGENCE OF THOUGHTS IS NOT AS FAST AS IN FLIGHT OF IDEA
• ALSO CALLED “ORDERED FLIGHT OF IDEA”
• FOUND IN HYPOMANIA

40. INHIBITION:
• GOAL DIRECTED
• PROCEEDS SO SLOWLY WITH MORBID PREOCCUPATION WITH GLOOMY THOUGHTS,
THAT GOAL IS NOT ACHIEVED.
• SUBJECT SHOWS:
• LITTLE INITIATIVE
• NO PLANNING
• NO SPONTANEOUS ACTIVITY
• DIFFICULTY IN TAKING DECISION
• LOSS OF CLARITY OF THOUGHT
• POOR REGISTRATION OF EVENTS THOSE HE NEEDS TO REMEMBER
• USUALLY SEEN IN depression
manic stupor [rare condition]

41. CIRCUMSTANTIALITY
QUESTION IS ASKED
PATIENT WILL ANSWER THE
QUESTION WITH ALL
SORTS OF UNNECESSARY
ASSOCIATIONS BEFORE
POINT IS REACHED.
AT WHAT AGE YOUR MOTHER DIED?
WHERE FOUND ?
Found in schizophrenia, learning disabilities, obsessional personality, epileptic personality change
SUBJECT TALKS ABOUT ACCIDENTS
PEOPLE WHO ATTENDED THE FUNERAL
FINALLY THE ANSWER, I.E THE AGE

42. DISORDERS OF CONTINUITY OF THINKING
• PERSEVERATION
• PATHOLOGICAL REPETITION OF THE SAME RESPONSE TO DIFFERENT STIMULI BEYOND A
POINT OF RELEVANCE.
• MEANINGLESS & STEREOTYPED REPETITION OF WORDS AND PHRASES IS CALLED
verbigeration OR cataphasia.
• FOUND IN:
• RULE OUT ORGANICITY FIRST !!!!
• COGNITIVE DISORDERS,SCHIZOPHRENIA, CATATONIA, COURSE BRAIN DISEASE

43. DISORDERS OF CONTINUITY OF THINKING
• PERSEVERATION
• WHERE DO YOU LIVE ?
• ANS: KOLKATA
• WHAT IS YOUR NAME ?
• ANS: KOLKATA
• WHAT DO YOU STUDY ?
• ANS: KOLKATA

44. DISORDERS OF CONTINUITY OF THINKING
 PALILALIA: THE PT. REPEATS THE PERSEVERATED WORD WITH INCREASING
FREQUENCY.
 EG: TEN, TEEN, TEEEEEEEEN, TEEEEEEEEEEEEN……………….. SO ON.
 LOGOCLONIA: THE LAST SYLLABLE OF THE LAST WORD IS REPEATED.
 EG: LION LIVES IN A DEN…EN….EN….EN….EN….EN…..
• BOTH TYPES OCCUR IN COARSE BRAIN DISEASE, IN PARTICULAR IN
ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE.

45. TYPES OF PERSEVERATION
 COMPULSIVE REPETITION: THE ACT IS REPEATED UNLESS THE PT. RECEIVES
ANOTHER INSTRUCTION – IS MORE FREQUENT IN SCHIZOPHRENICS.
 IMPAIRMENT OF SWITCHING: THE REPETITION CONTINUES AFTER THE PT. HAS
BEEN GIVEN A NEW TASK – MORE COMMON AMONG DEMENTS.
 IDEATIONAL PERSEVERATION: THE PATIENT REPEATS WORDS AND PHRASES
DURING HIS REPLY TO A QUESTION – EQUALLY COMMON IN BOTH GROUPS.

46. THOUGHT BLOCKING
• SUDDEN ARREST OF THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT WHICH MAY/MAY NOT BE
FOLLOWED BY AN ENTIRELY NEW THOUGHT
• ITS NOT CAUSED BY DISTRACTION OR OTHER THOUGHTS.
• PATIENT CANNOT GIVE ANY ADEQUATE EXPLANATION FOR IT.
• SOMETIMES PATIENT MAY EXPLAIN IT IN TERMS OF THOUGHT WITHDRAWAL
‘My thinking stopped because the thoughts were suddenly taken out of my head’.

47. DISORDERS OF POSSESSION OF THOUGHT
THOUGHT ALIENATION
OBCESSION & COMPULSION

48. DISORDERS OF POSSESSION OF THOUGHT
THOUGHT ALIENATION
ALIENATION MEANS-TO TRANSFER
• IN THOUGHT ALIENATION THE PATIENT HAS THE EXPERIENCE THAT HIS THOUGHTS ARE UNDER THE
CONTROL OF AN OUTSIDE AGENCY OR THAT OTHERS ARE PARTICIPATING IN HIS THINKING
• THOUGHT INSERTION - FEELING OF THOUGHTS BEING INSERTED INTO THE PATIENT’S MIND BY A
FOREIGN INFLUENCE
• THOUGHT DEPRIVATION/THOUGHT WITHDRAWAL - PATIENT FEELS THAT AS HE IS THINKING,HIS
THOUGHTS SUDDENLY DISAPPEAR AND ARE WITHDRAWN FROM HIS MIND BY A FOREIGN INFLUENCE

49. DISORDERS OF POSSESSION OF THOUGHT
THOUGHT ALIENATION
• THOUGHT BROADCASTING - FEELING THAT ONE’S THOUGHTS ARE BEING BROADCASTED OR
PROJECTED INTO THE ENVIRONMENT
THOUGHT ALIENATION PHENOMENON IS DIAGNOSTIC OF SCHIZOPHRENIA

50. OBSESSIONS & COMPULSIONS
OBSESSIONS ARE PERSISTENT,INVOLUNTARY AND RECURRENT
IDEA,THOUGHT OR IMPULSES THAT CANNOT BE ELIMINATED FROM
CONSCIOUSNESS BY LOGIC OR REASONING
WHAT IS OBSESSION ?

51. OBSESSIONS & COMPULSIONS
WHAT IS COMPULSION ?
COMPULSIONS ARE OBSESSIONAL MOTOR ACTS-THE NEED TO
ACT ON AN IMPULSE THAT IF RESISTED PRODUCES ANXIETY

52. OBSESSIONS & COMPULSIONS
• THE ESSENTIAL FEATURE OF THE OBSESSION IS THAT IT APPEARS AGAINST THE
PATIENT’S WILL.
• COMMONEST OBSESSIVE THEMES - DIRT & CONTAMINATION, RISK AND AGGRESSION.
• OBSESSIONS OCCUR IN-OBSESSIONAL STATES
• DEPRESSION
• SCHIZOPHRENIA
• POST ENCEPHALITIC PARKINSONISM

53. DISORDER OF CONTENT OF THINKING
DELUSION

54. DISORDER OF CONTENT OF THINKING
FALSE UNSHAKABLE BELIEFS WHICH ARE OUT OF KEEPING WITH
THE PATIENT’S SOCIAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND
OVERVALUED IDEAS
UNREASONABLE AND SUSTAINED ABNORMAL BELIEFS THAT ARE
HELD BEYOND THE BOUNDS OF REASON

55. DISORDER OF CONTENT OF THINKING
THE PSYCHIATRIST AND PHILOSOPHER KARL JASPERS WAS THE FIRST TO DEFINE
THE THREE MAIN CRITERIA FOR A BELIEF TO BE CONSIDERED DELUSIONAL IN HIS
1913 BOOK GENERAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY.
THESE CRITERIA ARE:
• CERTAINTY (HELD WITH ABSOLUTE CONVICTION)
• INCORRIGIBILITY (NOT CHANGEABLE BY COMPELLING COUNTERARGUMENT
OR PROOF TO THE CONTRARY)
• IMPOSSIBILITY OR FALSITY OF CONTENT (IMPLAUSIBLE, BIZARRE OR
PATENTLY UNTRUE)

56. DELUSION
CULTURALLY INAPPROPRIATE
NO DOUBT
NOT PLAUSIBLE
OVERVALUED IDEAS
CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE
SOME DOUBT IS PRESENT
PLAUSIBLE

57. IDEAS OF REFERENCE
IDEAS OF REFERENCE ARE FALSE PERSONALIZED INTERPRETATIONS
OF ACTUAL EVENTS IN WHICH INDIVIDUALS BELIEVE THAT
OCCURRENCES OR REMARKS REFER SPECIALLY TO THEM WHEN
THEY ACTUALLY DO NOT.

58. TRUE DELUSIONS
THE RESULT OF A PRIMARY
DELUSIONAL EXPERIENCE
WHICH CANNOT BE DEDUCED
FROM ANY OTHER MORBID
PHENOMENON
DELUSION LIKE IDEAS
ARE SECONDARY AND CAN BE
UNDERSTABLY DERIVED FROM
SOME OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL
PHENOMENON

59. TYPES OF DELUSION
PRIMARY DELUSION SECONDARY DELUSION

60. PRIMARY DELUSION
APOPHANY
A NEW MEANING ARISES IN CONNECTION WITH SOME OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL EVENT.
TYPES (Schneider’ division)
DELUSIONAL MOOD
DELUSIONAL PERCEPTION
REFERS TO THE EXPERIENCE OF ATTRIBUTING A NORMAL
PERCEPTION WITH A DELUSIONAL MEANING,ONE THAT
HAS ENORMOUS PERSONAL SIGNIFICANCE TO THE
PATIENT.
EG: CUTLERY CLANKING THEY ARE TRYING TO KILL ME
PATIENT HAS A SENSE THAT SOMETHING ODD OR
UNCANNY IS GOING ON AROUND HIM WHICH
CONCERNS HIM,BUT HE DOES NOT KNOW WHAT IT IS

61. PRIMARY DELUSION
APOPHANY
A NEW MEANING ARISES IN CONNECTION WITH SOME OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL EVENT.
TYPES (Schneider’ division)
SUDDEN DELUSIONAL
IDEA/AUTOCHTHONOUS
DELUSION
TAKES FORM IN AN INSTANT WITHOUT IDENTIFIABLE
PRECEEDING EVENTS

62. PRIMARY DELUSION
APOPHANY
A NEW MEANING ARISES IN CONNECTION WITH SOME OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL EVENT.
TYPES (Schneider’ division)
• PRIMARY DELUSIONS FOUND IN
• SCHIZOPHRENIA
• EPILEPTIC PSYCHOSIS
• DEPRESSION
PRIMARY DELUSION = TRUE DELUSION

63. SECONDARY DELUSION
SECONDARY DELUSIONS CAN BE UNDERSTOOD AS ARISING FROM SOME OTHER
MORBID EXPERIENCE. IT CAN BE SECONDARY TO :
• DEPRESSIVE MOOD
• HALLUCINATION
• PSYCHOGENIC OR STRESS REACTIONS
FOR EXAMPLE: A PERSON BECOMES DEPRESSED, SUFFERS VERY LOW MOOD AND SELF-
ESTEEM,AND SUBSEQUENTLY BELIEVES HE IS RESPONSIBLE FOR SOME TERRIBLE CRIME
WHICH HE DID NOT COMMIT IN REALITY

64. CONARD’S5STAGESIN
DEVELOPMENTOFDELUSION
TREMA
APOPHANY
ANASTROPHY
CONSOLIDATION
RESIDUUM
DELUSIONAL MOOD REPRESENTING A TOTAL
CHANGE IN PERCEPTION OF THE WORLD.
SEARCH FOR, AND FINDING OF NEW
MEANING FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL EVENTS.
HEIGHTENING OF PSYCHOSIS.
FORMING OF A NEW WORLD OR
PSYCHOLOGICAL SET BASED ON NEW
MEANING.
EVENTUAL AUTISTIC STATE.

65. SIMPLE DELUSION
SIMPLE DELUSIONS CONTAIN
RELATIVELY FEW ELEMENTS.
COMPLEX DELUSION
COMPLEX DELUSIONS MAY
CONTAIN EXTENSIVE ELABORATION
OF PEOPLE,SPIRITS,MOTIVES AND
SITUATIONS.

66. COMPLETE
COMPLETE DELUSIONS ARE
THOSE WHICH ARE HELD
WITHOUT ANY DOUBT.
INCOMPLETE/PARTIAL
IN PARTIAL DELUSION,THE PATIENT
ENTERTAINS SOME AMOUNT OF
DOUBT ABOUT HIS DELUSIONAL
BELIEFS

67. SYSTEMATIZED
SYSTEMATIZED DELUSIONS ARE RESTRICTED
OR CIRCUMSCRIBED TO WELL DELINEATED
AREAS AND ARE ORDINARILY ASSOCIATED
WITH A CLEAR SENSORIUM AND ABSENCE
OF HALLUCINATION.
NON SYSTEMATIZED
NON SYSTEMATIZED DELUSION EXTEND INTO
MANY AREAS OF LIFE AND NEW PEOPLE AND
SITUATIONS ARE CONSTANTLY INCORPORATED
TO SUPPORT THE PRESENCE OF DELUSION.

68. THE CONTENT OF DELUSIONS
DELUSION OF PERSECUTION
• THE ARCHETYPE OF DELUSIONAL DISORDER
• FALSE BELIEF OF BEING HARASSED OR PERSECUTED.
• ASSOCIATED WITH QUERULOUSNESS, IRRITABILITY& ANGER AND THE INDIVIDUAL WHO
ACTS OUT HIS OR HER ANGER MAY AT TIMES BE ASSAULTIVE OR EVEN HOMOCIDAL
• DELUSION OF PERSECUTION OCCURS IN THE CONTEXT OF PRIMARY DELUSIONAL
EXPERIENCE, AUDITORY HALLUCINATION, BODILY HALLUCINATIONS OR EXPERIENCES OF
PASSIVITY

69. FORMS OF PERSECUTORY DELUSIONS

70. DELUSION OF REFERENCE
• IN DELUSIONS OF REFERENCE THE PATIENT KNOWS THAT PEOPLE ARE TALKING
ABOUT HIM, SLANDERING HIM OR SPYING ON HIM.
• IT MAY BE DIFFICULT TO BE CERTAIN IF THE PATIENT HAS DELUSIONS OF SELF-
REFERENCE OR IF HE HAS SELF-REFERENTIAL HALLUCINATIONS.
• IDEAS AND DELUSIONS OF REFERENCE ARE NOT CONFINED TO SCHIZOPHRENIA
AND CAN OCCUR IN DEPRESSIVE ILLNESS AND OTHER PSYCHOTIC ILLNESSES.
• SOME PATIENTS WITH SEVERE DEPRESSION MAY BELIEVE THAT THEY ARE
EXTREMELY WICKED AND THAT OTHER PEOPLE KNOW THIS AND ARE
THEREFORE QUITE JUSTIFIABLY SPYING ON THEM.

71. DELUSION OF GUILT
• DELUSIONS OF GUILT CAN BE SO MARKED THAT THE PATIENT BELIEVES
THAT HE IS ABOUT TO BE PUT TO DEATH OR IMPRISONED FOR LIFE.
• THIS ALLEGED PERSECUTION IS GENERALLY BELIEVED TO BE FULLY JUSTIFIED
BY THE PATIENT.
• OCCASIONALLY, HOWEVER, A PATIENT MAY BELIEVE THIS ALLEGED
PERSECUTION IS NOT JUSTIFIED AND MAY ATTRIBUTE THEIR DEPRESSION
TO IT.

72. DELUSION OF BEING POISONED
• DELUSIONS OF BEING POISONED OR INFECTED ARE QUITE COMMON.
• OFTEN DELUSIONS OF POISONING ARE EXPLANATORY DELUSIONS.
• THE PATIENT FEELS MENTALLY AND PHYSICALLY CHANGED AND THE ONLY WAY IN WHICH THEY
CAN ACCOUNT FOR THIS IS BY ASSUMING THAT THEIR FOOD OR CIGARETTES HAVE BEEN
POISONED.
• IN OTHER CASES, DELUSIONS OF POISONING ARE BASED ON HALLUCINATIONS OF SMELL AND
TASTE.

73. DELUSION OF INFLUENCE
• DELUSIONS OF INFLUENCE ARE A ‘LOGICAL’ RESULT OF
EXPERIENCES OF PASSIVITY IN THE CONTEXT OF SCHIZOPHRENIA.
• THESE PASSIVITY FEELINGS MAY BE EXPLAINED BY THE PATIENT AS
THE RESULT OF HYPNOTISM, DEMONICAL POSSESSION,
WITCHCRAFT, RADIO WAVES, ATOMIC RAYS OR TELEVISION.

74. DELUSION OF INFIDELITY
• THE PATIENT HAS MORBID JEALOUSY AND DELUSION OF MARITAL INFIDELITY
• OFTEN THE PATIENT HAS BEEN SUSPICIOUS, SENSITIVE AND MILDLY JEALOUS
BEFORE THE ONSET OF THE ILLNESS
• DELUSION OF INFIDELITY MAY DEVELOP GRADUALLY, AS A SUSPICIOUS OR
INSECURE PERSON BECOMES MORE AND MORE CONVINCED OF THEIR
SPOUSE’S INFIDELITY AND FINALLY THE IDEA REACHES DELUSIONAL LEVEL.
• DELUSIONS OF INFIDELITY MAY OCCUR IN BOTH ORGANIC AND FUNCTIONAL
DISORDERS.
• Found in schizophrenia,coarse brain disease, alcohol addiction.

75. JOHN HINCKLEY JRJODIE FOSTER RONALD REGAN

76. JOHN HINCKLEY JRJODIE FOSTER RONALD REGAN
JOHN HINCKLEY, JR. BECAME OBSESSED WITH FOSTER AFTER WATCHING TAXI DRIVER A NUMBER
OF TIMES AND STALKED HER WHILE SHE ATTENDED YALE, SENDING HER LOVE LETTERS TO HER
CAMPUS MAIL BOX AND EVEN TALKING TO HER ON THE PHONE. ON MARCH 30, 1981, HE
ATTEMPTED TO ASSASSINATE U.S. PRESIDENT RONALD REAGAN (SHOOTING AND WOUNDING
REAGAN AND THREE OTHERS) AND CLAIMED HIS MOTIVE WAS TO IMPRESS FOSTER, THEN A YALE
FRESHMAN

77. DELUSION OF LOVE
• THIS CONDITION HAS ALSO BEEN DESCRIBED AS ‘THE FANTASY LOVER
SYNDROME’ , ‘EROTOMANIA’ OR ‘DE CLÉRAMBAULT'S SYNDROME’.
• THE PATIENT IS CONVINCED THAT SOME PERSON IS IN LOVE WITH THEM
ALTHOUGH THE ALLEGED LOVER MAY NEVER HAVE SPOKEN TO THEM.
• THEY MAY PESTER THE VICTIM WITH LETTERS AND UNWANTED ATTENTION OF
ALL KINDS.
• Found in – abnormal personality developments, schizophrenia

78. GRANDIOSE DELUSION
• EXAGGERATED CONCERNS ABOUT ONE’S IMPORTANCE,POWER OR
IDENTITY.
• BELIEVES THAT ONE HAS SPECIAL POWERS AND IS ACCOMPLISHING
OR WILL ACCOMPLISH EXTRAORDINARY THINGS FOR GOOD OF THE
COMMUNITY.

79. GRANDIOSE DELUSION
• SOME PEOPLE BELIEVE THAT THEY ARE GOD, KING OR ROCK STAR
WHEREAS SOME OTHERS BELIEVE THEY ARE SKILLED SPORTSPERSON
OR GREAT INVESTORS.
• FOUND IN MANIA, SCHIZOPHRENIA.

80. DELUSION OF ILL HEALTH
• DELUSION OF ILL HEALTH MAY DEVELOP ON A BACKGROUND OF CONCERNS
ABOUT HEALTH.
• FOUND IN SCHIZOPHRENIA, DEPRESSION, ABNORMAL PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT
• HYPOCHONDRIACAL DELUSIONS: BELIEF THAT ONE’S BODY IS UNHEALTHY,
DISEASED OR CHRONICALLY ILL.MAY BE THE RESULT OF DEPRESSION, BODILY
HALLUCINOSIS OR A SENSE OF SUBJECTIVE CHANGE.

81. DELUSIONAL DYSMORPHOPHOBIA
• THE DELUSIONAL PREOCCUPATIONS WITH FACIAL OR BODILY APPEARANCES
IS CALLED DELUSIONAL DYSMORPHOPHOBIA.
• THE SUBJECT IS CONVINCED THAT THEIR NOSE IS TOO BIG, THEIR FACE IS
TWISTED, OR DISFIGURED WITH ACNE, AND SO ON.
• SOMETIMES THESE PREOCCUPATIONS WITH ILL HEALTH OR THE APPEARANCE
OF THE BODY HAVE A SOMEWHAT OBSESSIONAL QUALITY, SO THAT THE
PATIENT CANNOT STOP THINKING ABOUT THE SUPPOSED ILLNESS OR
DEFORMITY.
• THE BELIEF IS OF DELUSIONAL INTENSITY AND THE PATIENT IS NEVER ABLE
TO ADMIT THAT THEIR BELIEF IS GENUINELY GROUNDLESS.

82. DELUSION OF GUILT
• PATIENT BELIEVES THEY ARE BAD OR EVIL PERSON AND HAVE RUINED THEIR
FAMILY AND THAT THEY HAVE COMMITTED UNPARDONABLE SIN AND INSIST
THAT THEY WILL ROT IN HELL FOR THIS.
• THE SIN IS USUALLY MASTURBATION OR EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL
INTERCOURSE
• DELUSION OF GUILT CAN GIVE RISE TO GRANDIOSE AND PERSECUTORY
DELUSIONS
• FOUND IN SEVERE DEPRESSION.

83. NIHILISTIC DELUSION
• PATIENTS DENY THE EXISTENCE OF THEIR BODY,THEIR MIND,THEIR LOVED
ONES AND THE WORLD AROUND THEM.
• THEY MAY ASSERT THAT THEY HAVE NO MIND, NO INTELLIGENCE, OR THEIR
BODY OR PARTS OF BODY DO NOT EXIST
• THEY MAY DENY THEIR EXISTENCE AS PERSON OR BELIEVE THEY ARE DEAD
OR WHOLE WORLD HAS STOPPED.
• FOUND IN SEVERE DEPRESSION, SCHIZOPHRENIA,STATES OF DELIRIUM.

84. DELUSION OF POVERTY
• THE PATIENT IS CONVINCED THAT HE IS IMPOVERISHED AND
BELIEVES THAT DESTITUTION IS FACING HIM AND HIS FAMILY
• TYPICAL OF DEPRESSION

85. A CLASS OF DELUSIONAL BELIEFS THAT INVOLVES THE
MISIDENTIFICATION OF PEOPLE, PLACES, OR OBJECTS
DELUSIONAL MISIDENTIFICATION

86. A CLASS OF DELUSIONAL BELIEFS THAT INVOLVES THE
MISIDENTIFICATION OF PEOPLE, PLACES, OR OBJECTS
A RARE VARIANT OF CAPGRAS' SYNDROME INVOLVING
A PATIENT'S PERCEIVING THAT AN INDIVIDUAL HAS
BEEN TRANSFORMED BOTH PSYCHOLOGICALLY AND
PHYSICALLY INTO ANOTHER PERSON.
DELUSION OF SUBJECTIVE DOUBLES

87. THE PATIENT BELIEVES THAT SOMEONE CLOSE TO
HIM HAS BEEN REPLACED BY AN EXACT DOUBLE
CAPGRAS SYNDROME

88. THE PATIENT’S OWN SELF IS
PERCEIVED AS BEING REPLACED BY A
DOUBLE
DELUSION OF SUBJECTIVE DOUBLES

89. DELUSION OF DISGUISE (FREGOLI’S SYNDROME)
A RARE DISORDER IN WHICH A PERSON HOLDS A DELUSIONAL BELIEF
THAT DIFFERENT PEOPLE ARE IN FACT A SINGLE PERSON WHO CHANGES
APPEARANCE OR IS IN DISGUISE.
THE CONDITION IS NAMED AFTER THE ITALIAN QUICK CHANGE ARTIST
LEOPOLDO FREGOLI.

90. SYNDROME OF INTERMETAMORPHOSIS
A RARE VARIANT OF CAPGRAS' SYNDROME INVOLVING A PATIENT'S
PERCEIVING THAT AN INDIVIDUAL HAS BEEN TRANSFORMED BOTH
PSYCHOLOGICALLY AND PHYSICALLY INTO ANOTHER PERSON.

91. COTARD’S SYNDROME/ WALKING CORPSE SYNDROME
INDIVIDUALS REPORT THAT THEY HAVE LOST ALL OF THEIR POSSESSIONS,
STATUS AND STRENGTH INCLUDING THEIR ORGANS

92. DELUSION OF CONTROL
FALSE BELIEF THAT ONE’S WILL,THOUGHT OR FEELINGS
ARE BEING CONTROLLED BY EXTERNAL FORCES.

93. SHARED DELUSION
(FOLIE A DEUX, FOLIE A TROIS, FOLIE A FAMILLE)
FALSE BELIEF SHARED COMMONLY AMONG SPOUCES, IN A
PARENT AND A CHILD, OR IN CLOSE SIBLINGS (OFTEN SISTERS)
WHO HAVE LIVED TOGETHER FOR A LONG TIME

94. SHARED DELUSION
• FOLIE IMPOSÉE
• IT IS WHERE A DOMINANT PERSON (KNOWN AS THE 'PRIMARY', 'INDUCER' OR 'PRINCIPAL') INITIALLY
FORMS A DELUSIONAL BELIEF DURING A PSYCHOTIC EPISODE AND IMPOSES IT ON ANOTHER PERSON
OR PERSONS (KNOWN AS THE 'SECONDARY', 'ACCEPTOR' OR 'ASSOCIATE').
• THE SECONDARY PERSON MIGHT NOT HAVE BECOME DELUDED IF LEFT ON HIS OR HER OWN.
• IF THE PARTIES ARE ADMITTED TO HOSPITAL SEPARATELY, THEN THE DELUSIONS IN THE PERSON WITH
THE INDUCED BELIEFS USUALLY RESOLVE WITHOUT THE NEED OF MEDICATION.
• FOLIE SIMULTANÉE
• IT DESCRIBES EITHER THE SITUATION WHERE TWO PEOPLE CONSIDERED TO SUFFER INDEPENDENTLY
FROM PSYCHOSIS INFLUENCE THE CONTENT OF EACH OTHER'S DELUSIONS SO THEY BECOME
IDENTICAL OR STRIKINGLY SIMILAR, OR ONE IN WHICH TWO PEOPLE "MORBIDLY PREDISPOSED" TO
DELUSIONAL PSYCHOSIS MUTUALLY TRIGGER SYMPTOMS IN EACH OTHER.

95. THE REALITY OF DELUSION
• NOT ALL PATIENTS WITH DELUSION ACT ON THEIR DELUSIONAL BELIEF.
• USUALLY WHEN A DELUSIONAL ILLNESS BECOMES CHRONIC, THERE IS
DISCREPANCY BETWEEN THE DELUSIONS AND THE PATIENT’S BEHAVIOUR.
• EG - A GRANDIOSE PATIENT MAY SCRUB THE FLOOR.
• DELUSIONS OR OVERVALUED IDEAS OF JEALOUSY SEEM TO BE THE MOST
DANGEROUS KIND. BECAUSE OVERVALUED AND DELUSION LIKE IDEAS
OCCUR IN INTACT PERSONALITY BUT TRUE DELUSIONS OCCUR IN A
DISINTEGRATED PERSONALITY.
• ACTION IS MORE LIKELY TO BE TAKEN ON THE BASIS OF OVERVALUED IDEAS
AND DELUSION LIKE IDEAS THAN ON THE BASIS OF TRUE DELUSIONS.

96. DISORDER OF THE FORM OF THINKING
FORMAL THOUGHT DISORDERS ARE CHARACTERIZED BY
DISTURBANCE IN THE FORM OR FLOW AND
CONNECTIVITY OF THOUGHT.

97. DISORDER OF THE FORM OF THINKING
SCHNEIDER’S 5 FEATURES OF FORMAL THOUGHT DISORDER
DERAILMENT THE THOUGHT SLIDES ONTO A SUBSIDIARY THOUGHT
SUBSTITUTION A MAJOR THOUGHT IS SUBSTITUTED BY A SUBSIDIARY ONE
OMISSION SENSELESS OMISSION OF A THOUGHT OR A PART OF IT

98. DISORDER OF THE FORM OF THINKING
SCHNEIDER’S 5 FEATURES OF FORMAL THOUGHT DISORDER
FUSION HETEROGENOUS ELEMENTS OF THOUGHT ARE INTERWOVEN WITH EACH OTHER
DRIVELLING THERE IS A DISORGANISED INTERMIXTURE OF CONSTITUENT PARTS OF ONE
COMPLEX THOUGHT

99. TANGENTIALITY
FORMAL THOUGHT DISORDERS
OBLIQUE, DISGRESSIVE, IRRELEVANT MANNER OF SPEECH IN WHICH THE
CENTRAL IDEA IS NOT COMMUNICATED AT ALL.
CENTRAL IDEA

100. FORMAL THOUGHT DISORDERS
LOOSENING OF ASSOCIATION
• SCHIZOPHRENIC THINKING OR SPEECH DISTURBANCE INVOLVING A
DISORDER OF LOGICAL PROGRESSION OF THOUGHT,MANIFESTED AS A
FAILURE TO COMMUNICATE VERBALLY ADEQUATELY.
• UNRELATED AND UNCONNECTED IDEAS SHIFT FROM ONE SUBJECT TO
ANOTHER.
• EG: ‘The traffic is rumbling along the main road. They are going to the north.
Why do girls always play pantomime heroes.’ —given by Carl Schneider

101. FORMAL THOUGHT DISORDERS
CLANG ASSOCIATION
• IT REFERS TO A SEQUENCE OF THOUGHTS STIMULATED BY THE SOUND OF
PRECEDING WORDS RATHER THAN THEIR MEANING.
• MANIC PATIENT SAYS “I WILL KILL WITH A DRILL OR A PILL”

102. INCOHERENT, ESSENTIALLY INCOMPREHENSIBLE MIXTURE OF WORDS AND PHRASES,USUALLY
SEEN IN FAR ADVANCED CASES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA.
WORD SALAD
ASYNDESIS
CAMERON ( 1944) USED THIS TERM TO DESCRIBE THE LACK OF ADEQUATE CONNECTIONS BETWEEN
SUCCESSIVE THOUGHTS.

103. INABILITY TO NARROW DOWN THE OPERATIONS OF THINKING
OVERINCLUSION
NEOLOGISM
NEW WORD OR PHRASE WHOSE DERIVATION CANNOT BE UNDERSTOOD.
SEEN IN SCHIZOPHRENIA

104. TRANSITORY THINKING:
IT IS CHARACTERIZED BY DERAILMENTS,SUBSTITUTION AND OMISSIONS.THE GRAMMATICAL AND
SYNTACTICAL STRUCTURES ARE BOTH DISTURBED IN TRANSITORY THINKING.
DRIVELLING THINKING:
THE PATIENT HAS A PRELIMINARY OUTLINE OF A COMPLICATED THOUGHT WITH ALL ITS NECESSARY
PARTICULARS,BUT LOSES PRELIMINARY ORGANIZATION OF THE THOUGHT SO THAT ALL THE
CONSTITUENTS GET MUDDLED TOGETHER.
DESULTORY THINKING:
IN DESULTORY THINKING,SPEECH IS GRAMMATICALLY CORRECT BUT SUDDEN IDEAS FORCE THEIR WAY
IN FROM TIME TO TIME WHICH IF USED AT THE RIGHT TIME WOULD BE QUITE SUITABLE
THESE ARE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA.
OBJECTIVE THOUGHT DISORDER

105. RECENT ADVANCES
• POSITIVE CORRELATIONS HAVE BEEN FOUND IN BETWEEN PERFUSION AND THE SEVERITY OF
FORMAL THOUGHT DISORDER IN THE LEFT FRONTAL AND LEFT TEMPOROPARIETAL LANGUAGE
AREAS. ITS BEEN OBSERVED THAT BILATERAL DEFICITS IN GREY-MATTER VOLUME, POSITIVELY
CORRELATES WITH THE SEVERITY OF THOUGHT DISORDER IN TEMPOROPARIETAL AREAS AND
OTHER BRAIN REGIONS.
• SO, SPECIFIC GREY-MATTER DEFICITS MAY BE A RISK FACTOR FOR STATE-RELATED DYSFUNCTIONS
OF THE LEFT-SIDED LANGUAGE SYSTEM, LEADING TO LOCAL HYPERPERFUSION AND FORMAL
THOUGHT DISORDER.
~ The British Journal of Psychiatry (2009) 194, 130–138. doi: 10.1192/bjp.bp.107.045633

106. RECENT ADVANCES
NEUROBIOLOGY OF CREATIVE THINKING
THREE-FACTOR MODEL OF THE CREATIVE THINKING (2005 BY ALICE FLAHERTY)
• DRAWING FROM EVIDENCE IN BRAIN IMAGING, DRUG STUDIES AND LESION ANALYSIS,THE CREATIVE
DRIVE IS SEEN TO BE RESULTING FROM AN INTERACTION OF THE FRONTAL LOBE, TEMPORAL LOBE AND
DOPAMINE FROM THE LIMBIC SYSTEM
• THE FRONTAL LOBES CAN BE SEEN AS RESPONSIBLE FOR IDEA GENERATION, AND THE TEMPORAL
LOBES FOR IDEA EDITING AND EVALUATION.
• HIGH ACTIVITY IN THE TEMPORAL LOBE TYPICALLY INHIBITS ACTIVITY IN THE FRONTAL LOBE, AND VICE
VERSA.
• HIGH DOPAMINE LEVELS INCREASE GENERAL AROUSAL AND GOAL DIRECTED BEHAVIORS AND REDUCE
LATENT INHIBITION, AND ALL THREE EFFECTS INCREASE THE DRIVE TO GENERATE IDEAS

107. RECENT ADVANCES
• THE SEVERITY OF POSITIVE FTD WAS INVERSELY CORRELATED WITH THE LEVEL OF ACTIVITY IN THE
WERNICKE AREA, A REGION IMPLICATED IN THE PRODUCTION OF COHERENT SPEECH. REDUCED
ACTIVITY IN THIS AREA MIGHT CONTRIBUTE TO THE ARTICULATION OF INCOHERENT SPEECH.
~ Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58(8):769-774. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.58.8.769.
• THE HLA-A*03 GENE IS SIGNIFICANTLY ASSOCIATED WITH DELUSIONAL DISORDER AS WELL AS WITH PARANOID
SCHIZOPHRENIA. THIS HLA GENE ALONE OR IN LINKAGE DISEQUILIBRIUM WITH OTHER HLA GENES OR OTHER
CLOSELY LINKED NON-HLA GENES MAY INFLUENCE SUSCEPTIBILITY TO DELUSIONAL DISORDER AND PARANOID
SCHIZOPHRENIA.
~ Can J Psychiatry. 2006 May;51(6):342-9.

108. “A HUMAN BEING IS PART OF AWHOLE, CALLED BY USTHE UNIVERSE, A PART
LIMITED INTIME AND SPACE. HE EXPERIENCE HIMSELF, HISTHOUGHTSAND
FEELING AS SOMETHING SEPARATE FROMTHE REST, A KIND OF OPTICAL
DELUSION OF HIS CONSCIOUSNESS.
THIS DELUSION IS A KIND OF PRISON FOR US.”
~ ALBERT EINSTEIN
“THOSEWHO DO NOT SUFFER
FROMTHIS DELUSION HAVE
OFTEN BEEN CALLED
DELUSIONAL BYTHOSEWHO
REALLY ARE”
~ JENNIFER CRUISE

109. THANK YOU