1. The document discusses various causes and types of diplopia including monocular diplopia caused by refractive errors or macular disorders and binocular diplopia caused by cranial nerve palsies or muscle restrictions. 2. Evaluation of diplopia involves assessing head posture, eye movements, refractive error and neurological function through tests like the three-step test for fourth nerve palsy. Special tests like diplopia testing and cyclodeviation measurements localize the site of muscle weakness. 3. Causes of transient or intermittent diplopia include decompensated phoria, convergence insufficiency, myasthenia gravis or TIAs, while surgical procedures can also cause diplopia through restrictions

1. DR.ANISHA RATHOD
MS,FPOS
(Pediatric Ophthalmolgy And Strabismus)
DIPLOPIA AND ITS
MANAGEMENT

2. THE AUTHOR HAS NO FINANCIAL INTEREST IN THE SUBJECT
MATTER BEING PRESENTED
FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE

3. • Donders: Abnormal accommodative /convergence ratio and hyperopia
• Duke-Elder: Failure in the development of the secondary fixation reflex;
disruptions of the central, peripheral and postural oculomotor mechanisms; and
impaired development of the optical, sensory or motor systems
• Scobee: Innervational, accommodative, mechanical, functional, sensory and motor
anomalies
CAUSES OF STRABISMIC DEVIATION

4. •More than one cranial nerve deficit
•Pupillary involvement of any degree
•Any neurologic symptoms or signs besides
diplopia
•Pain
•Proptosis
RED FLAGS

5. MONOCULAR DIPLOPIA
• Irregular astigmatism ( nebular scars, haze, corneal
distortion)
• Subluxated clear lenses
• Poorly fitting contact lenses
• Early cataract
• Iridodialysis, polycoria, large iridotomies
• Macular disorders – edema, CNVM etc

6. • Orbital disorders Trauma, mass or tumor, infection
• Extraocular muscle restriction Thyroid – associated ophthalmopathy,
mass or tumor, extraocular muscle entrapment, extraocular muscle
injury or hematoma due to ocular surgery.
• Extraocular muscle weakness Congenital myopathies, mitochondrial
myopathies, muscular dystrophy.
• Neuromuscular junction dysfunction Myasthenia gravis.
BINOCULAR DIPLOPIA

7. • Palsies of the third, fourth or sixth cranial nerves Ischemia,
haemorrhage, tumor or mass, vascular malformation, aneurysm,
trauma, meningitis, multiple sclerosis.
• Brain stem injury to cranial nerve nuclei Stroke, haemorrhage,
tumor or mass, trauma, vascular malformation.
• Supranuclear injury (pathways to and between cranial nerve
nuclei) Stroke, haemorrhage, tumor or mass, trauma, multiple
sclerosis, hydrocephalus, syphilis, Wernicke’s encephalopathy,
neurodegenerative disease.

8. • Decompensated phoria
• Convergence or
divergence insufficiency
• Myasthenia gravis
• Spasm of
accommodation
TIAs involving the
vertebrobasilar system
Superior oblique myokymia
Cyclic esotropia
TRANSIENT DIPLOPIA

9. VERGENCE
INSUFFICICENCY

10. • Divergence insufficiency is an ocular motor anomaly characterized by horizontal
diplopia in the distance.
• The esodeviation remains comitant in all fields of gaze at distance and markedly
lessens or resolves at near.
• Ductions are full without evidence of abduction deficit.
• A cluster of cells in the pons called the nucleus reticularis tegmenti pontis may
represent the supranuclear divergence center.
DIVERGENCE INSUFFICIENCY AND PARALYSIS

11. • Divergence insufficiency arises as a benign phenomenon with
spontaneous resolution in many cases.
• Neuroimaging should be considered because bilateral sixth
nerve palsies, mass lesions, and demyelinating disease may
present

12. • Convergence insufficiency is a relatively common cause of diplopia at near in children and adults.
• It can develop after head trauma
• Patients report diplopia, blurred vision, and asthenopia with prolonged near tasks.
• Examination reveals an exodeviation greater at near than distance and a remote near point of
convergence of greater than 6 to 8 cm.
• Simple eye exercises (“pencil pushups”) are effective in a minority of cases.
• Orthoptic training using base-out prisms for near viewing.
CONVERGENCE INSUFFICIENCY AND PARALYSIS

13. • Nonorganic cause of double vision, but it might easily be mistaken for a
unilateral or bilateral sixth-nerve palsy or myasthenia,
• Miotic pupils, in a patient with variable esotropia and abduction deficits, can
suggest convergence spasm
• When evaluating versions, there may be an abduction deficit and the pupils are
miotic from convergence.
• When ductions are performed, the abduction deficit resolves.
CONVERGENCE SPASM

14. • Prenuclear vertical misalignment that results from brainstem or
cerebellar lesions.
• It may be comitant or incomitant
SKEW DEVIATION

15. • Some patients may note diplopia soon after ocular surgery
because a preoperative ocular misalignment failed to cause
diplopia (due to poor vision in the preoperative eye).
• Postoperative refraction may reveal an inter-eye difference
of approximately 3 to 4 diopters (6% to 8% aniseikonia)
while cover testing shows orthophoria.
• Anisometropia induces different prismatic effect between
eyes leading to diplopia.
POSTOPERATIVE DIPLOPIA CATARACT SURGERY

16. • This is usually vertical diplopia due to small fusional
amplitudes and may be correctable with a slab- off prism from
the more-minus or less-plus lens.
• Other patients suffer from surgical trauma to the EOMs after
peribulbar injections or superior rectus bridle sutures.
• The deviation either resolves within the next several days to
weeks or evolves into a permanent restrictive strabismus

17. • Diplopia can result from scleral buckling surgery.
• Expansion of hydrogel explant material may cause a restrictive orbitopathy.
• Temporary strabismus lasting several months is not uncommon even after
uncomplicated procedures.
• However, permanent strabismus may occur from inaccurate reattachment of
the EOM, direct injury to the EOM, and scarring of Tenon’s capsule.
• Scleral buckling can induce a myopic shift in the affected eye leading to
anisometropia and aniseikonia.
SCLERAL BUCKLING SURGERY

18. • Binocular diplopia may occur after glaucoma implant surgery.
• This complication was much more common with the early Baerveldt
implants than with the Ahmed or Molteno implants.
• Implant reservoirs result in a bleb that may involve the extraocular
muscles; therefore, repositioning the implant may eliminate diplopia.
• If diplopia persists, it may require implant removal.
GLAUCOMA SURGERY

19. • Patients can report monocular or binocular diplopia after refractive surgery
• Wavefront technology can measure higher-order optical aberrations, which
have been associated with monocular diplopia.
• Scarring, under/overcorrected refractive error or ablation zone smaller than
the scotopic pupil.
• Binocular diplopia may result from a decentered ablation zone in one eye.
REFRACTIVE SURGERY

20. • Maculopathies such as epiretinal membranes can anatomically pull one fovea out
of correspondence with the fellow fovea.
• This misalignment of foveas leads to central binocular diplopia.
• Patients may note relief of diplopia initially (central fusion) with prism trials.
Within minutes, peripheral fusion takes over and the central diplopia returns.
DRAGGED-FOVEA DIPLOPIA SYNDROME

21. For monocular diplopia refraction, slit lamp and dilated fundus examination is to be done
to find out the cause.
The evaluation of binocular diplopia includes:
1. Abnormal head posture-
The patient prefers a head posture in which the ocular deviation is least and the images can
be fused.
It has three components :
(a) Chin elevation or depression (vertical)
(b) Face turn to right or left side (horizontal)
(c) Head tilt to right or left shoulder (torsional)
Comparison with an old photograph is helpful to differentiate whether head posture is
long standing or recent.
EVALUATION

22. • Orbital and lid abnormalities –
• Examine lid and orbit for proptosis,
• Ptosis,
• Periorbital swelling,
• Ocular trauma,
• Lid retraction,
• Lid lag
• Other signs of thyroid associated ophthalmopathy

23. 3.Extraocular muscle movements – Ocular movements ductions and
versions should be checked in all nine positions of gazes.
4. Pupillary reactions – Pupillary examination is vital as its
involvement indicates third nerve palsies due to compressive lesions or
AV malformations and sparing indicates cases of third nerve palsies due
to ischaemic causes.

24. 6. Examination of cranial nerves especially third, fourth and
sixth cranial nerves
7 Third cranial nerve palsy Pupil involving third nerve palsy-
neuroimaging to rule out a aneurysm
Pupil sparing third nerve palsy -due to ischemia secondary to
micro vascular disease like DM, HTN and dyslipidemia
8. Fourth nerve palsy Fourth nerve palsy causes diplopia that
is worse in downgaze. Park – Bielschowsky 3 – step test is an
algorithm for identifying patterns of ocular motility that
confirm the dysfunction of cyclovertical muscles.

25. c) Sixth nerve palsy The sixth cranial nerve innervates lateral rectus,
which is an abductor. Hence with the normal eye fixing, the paralysed
eye is deviated inwards.
7. Prism Bar Cover Test - Measurement of angle of deviation to quantify
the amount of deviation in different gazes should be done.
8. Maddox rod test – This gives a quantitative information about the
degree and type of ocular misalignment.
9. Fundus examination

27. General approach to diplopia.

28. • HEAD POSTURE
• Lid fissure: Palpebral fissure
• Facial symmetry
• Chin elevation/depression(vertical)
• Face turn right/left(Horizontal)
• Head tilt to right/left(torsional)
• Ocular torticollis, nystagmus,
• Marcus Gun phenomenon
• Bell’s phenomenon
MOTOR STATUS

29. Normal Right.
4th
Head posture in rightsuperior
oblique palsy.
The chin is down and the headtilted
left while the eyes look up to the
right. This compensates for boththe
vertical and the torsional defect.

30. •
Brown right eye
Face Up - Left
SR palsy or IR restriction one or
both eyes chin up
IR palsy with limited depression one or both
eyes Chin Down

31. Synaptophore
• Measurement of fusional amplitudes
• Detection of suppression and ARC
• Measurement of angle
• Grading of binocular vision

32. Subjective assesment is made on a
scale of 7 points+3 to -3 or 9 points
+4 to -4.
Adduction is normal when nasal
1/3rd of cornea crosses lower
punctum.
Abduction is normal temporal
limbus touches the lateral canthus.
LIMITATION OF MOVEMENTS

33. AN EXAMPLE OF PARALYTIC VERTICAL
STRABISMUS OF RIGHT INFERIOR RECTUS M.

34. VERSIONS
DUCTIONS
Any associations with ocular
movements-retraction of globe,
narrowing of palpebral fissure,
upshoot/downshoot of globe
OCULAR MOVEMENTS

35. Corneal reflection to estimate
amount of deviation.
1mm shift signifies 7 degree of
deviation.
Test useful in non-fixating
eyes/in infants.
.
HIRSCHBERG’s TEST
HIRSCHBERG’S TEST

36. Orthophoria
COVER – UNCOVER TEST

37. Esophoria
Note OS does not
move.
COVER – UNCOVER TEST

38. Exophoria,
Only seen when eye is
covered
Note OS does not move
COVER – UNCOVER TEST

39. Exotropia, intermittent
May have intermittent
diplopia, especially
when tired or sick
ALTERNATE COVER TEST

40. Exotropia, Constant
May be visible with
or without alternate
cover
ALTERNATE COVER TEST

41. Normal Convergence
Convergence Insufficiency

42. The prism bar is placed on fixating
eye to neutralise the amount by
observing corneal reflex in non
fixating eye
KRIMSKEY’S TEST

43. Differentiates bifoveal fixation from
central suppression scotoma
1.In bifoveal fixation,prism is placed base
outwards with deviation of image
temporally and movements of both eyes
to left.
2.In left microtropia patient fixes target
and a prism is placed base out before left
eye.Image moves temporally in left but
within central suppression scotoma.
4 PRISM TEST

44. Special motor tests
• Forced duction test
• Active forced generation test
• Three step test

48. SPECIAL TESTS
Parks three-step test is very useful in the diagnosis of fourth
nerve palsy and is performed as follows :
A- first step. Assess which eye is hypertropic in the primary
position .
Left hypertropia may be caused by weakness of one of the
following four muscles : one of the depressors of the left
eye ( superior oblique or inferior rectus ) / elevators of the
right eye ( superior rectus or inferior oblique ) .
In a fourth nerve palsy the involved eye is higher .

49. B- step two . Determine whether the left
hypertropia is greater in right gaze or left gaze .
Increase on right gaze implicates either the right
inferior rectus or left inferior oblique .
Increase on left gaze implicates either the right
superior oblique or left superior rectus ( in fourth
nerve palsy the deviation is Worse On Opposite
Gaze – WOOG ).

50. C- step three .the Bielschowsky head tilt test ( isolates
the paretic muscle ).
With the patient fixating a straight ahead target at 3
meters, the head is tilted to the right and then to the left
.
Increase of left hypertropia on left head tilt implicates
the left superior oblique and increase of left hypertropia
on right head tilt implicates the right inferior rectus .
( in fourth nerve palsy the deviation is Better On
Opposite Tilt – BOOT )

52. 3 STEPTEST

53. • In cases of misalignment,subject
perceives diplopia.
• Diplopia can be tested by red green
glasses over right and left eye
respectively with a slit target.
• Esodeviations cause uncrossed
diplopia(homonymous)and
exodeviations cause crossed
diplopia(Heteronymous)
• Hess Screen is also used for ocular
paralysis and restrictive conditions.
DIPLOPIA PRINCIPLE

54. .
DOUBLE MADDOX ROD
TEST one white and other
red,tilt neutralised by rotating
the rods.Change in axis givees
the exact cyclodeviation.
OBJECTIVE:
Indirect Ophthalmoscopy and
fundus photography are useful.
CYCLODEVIATION

55. Double Maddox rod test
-Red and green Maddox rods , with the cylinders vertical , are
placed one in front of either eye .
- Each eye will therefore perceive a more or less horizontal line
of light .
-In the presence of cyclodeviation , the line perceived by the
paretic eye will be tilted and therefore distinct from that of the
other eye .
-One Maddox rod is then rotated till fusion ( superimposition )
of the line is achieved .

56. -The amount of rotation can be measured in degrees
and indicates the extent of cyclodeviation .
-Unilateral fourth nerve palsy is characterized by less
than 10° of cyclodeviation whilst bilateral fourths
may have greater than 20° of cyclodeviation.
- This can also be measured with a synoptophore .

57. EVALUATION OF OCULAR TORSION
Anatomic (objective) torsion refers to
anatomic rotation of eye.
Subjective torsion refers to the patient’s
perception of rotation.
Comparison of anatomic and subjective
torsion can help determine the time of onset
of cyclovertical strabismus.

58. MEASURING OBJECTIVE TORSION
INDIRECT OPHTHALMOSCOPY
GRADING SYSTEM FOR ESTIMATING ABNORMAL TORSION

59. • SUBJECTIVE:Diplopia charting with
slit makes the patient apprecitae tilt.
• Excyclodeviation the tilt will be
anticlockwise and in incyclodeviation
it will be clockwise
• Diplopia is maximum ( separation of
images) in the field of action of the
paralysed muscle.
• The false image ( the image belonging
to the eye with the hypofunctioning
muscle ) is always peripherally situated
• higher in upgaze,
• lower in downgaze,
• on the right in right gaze
• on the left in left gaze
DIPLOPIA CHARTING

60. RED-GLASS TEST
• In a patient with strabismus, the red-glass (diplopia) test involves
stimulation of both
• The fovea of the fixating eye and an extrafoveal area of the other eye.
• First, the patient's deviation is measured objectively.
• Then a red glass is placed before the non deviating eye while the
patient fixates on a white light.

61. • This test can be performed both at distance and at near.
• If the patient sees only 1 light (either red or white), suppression is
present . the suppression scotoma, causing the patient to experience
diplopia.
• With NRC, the white image will be localized correctly: the white image
is seen below and to the right of the left image .
• With ARC, the white image will be localized incorrectly: it is seen
directly below the image.

62. THE FOLLOWING RESPONSES ARE POSSIBLE WITH THE
RED-GLASS TEST:
The images appear uncrossed (eg, the red light is to the left of the white light
with the red glass over the left eye).
This response is known as homonymous, or uncrossed, diplopia.
If the patient has exotropia, the images appear crossed (eg, the red light is to
the right of the
white light with the red glass over the left eye).
This response is known as heteronymous, or crossed, diplopia.
If the measured separation between the
2 images equals the previously determined deviation, the patient has NRC.

63. RED-GLASS TEST
If the patient sees the 2 lights superimposed so that they appear
pinkish
despite a measurable esotropia or exotropia, an abnormal localization
of retinal points is present. harmonious anomalous retinal
correspondence .
• If the patient sees 2 lights (with uncrossed diplopia in esotropia
and with crossed diplopia in exotropia), but the separation between
the 2 images is found to be less than the previously determined
deviation, unharmonious anomalous retinal correspondence.

64. Dissimilar image tests
• Measures heterophoria
• Dissociates eyes for near fixation (1/3 m)
Maddox wing Maddox rod

66. • Corrective prisms are placed in front
of deviating eye with patient fixing
eyes on target.
• Prisms are slowly increased until angle
overcorrected and diplopia occurs.
POSTOPERATIVE DIPLOPIA
TESTING

67. Sensory adaptation to squint to which
only one eye functions.
1.Bagolini’s striated glasses:
Symmetrical cross response: Absence
of manifest squint(NRC)
Manifest squint:ARC
Asymmetrical cross response:diplopia
present incommitant squint
Single line:suppresion response of one
eye
Cross response with gap:scotoma
SUPPRESSION

68. 4 dots :normal binocular response
5 dots:
esodeviation:uncrossed pattern(Red on right side)
Exodeviation:crossed pattern(red on left side)
Vertical squint:vertically displaced sets
3 dots:Suppression of right eye
2 dots:Suppression of left eye
WORTH’S FOUR DOT TEST

69. • Fovea to fovea sensory test
• Each fovea bleached with linear streak of light vertically for 10 sec with
monocular occlusion.
• Linear after image seen.
• Fixing eye stimulated to produce after effect.
• Other eye streak is kept horizontally.
• Patients with NRC see cross(ET,XT)as fovea is centre of refrence.
• In ARC,pseudofovea takes up the centre of reference from peripheral
visual field.
AFTER IMAGE TEST

70. • ET-
• Fovea temporal to pseudofovea,temporal
retina projects in opposite field
• -Right after image.
• XT-
• Fovea nasal to pseudofovea and nasal retina
projecting to ipsilateral field
• Right after image seen on right.

71. • Test for suppression
• Patient is asked to read letters on screen with polarised glasses
• Projection of letters has certain letters seen by right eye,some by left and
others by both eyes.
• Patient with normal BSV-Sees all letters
• Suppression if present-Supressed eyes letters not seen.
VECTOGRAPH TEST

72. • Bcva
• Patching therapy pedig trial
• Surgery
• Botox
• Fresnel prisms
• Black contact lens with dim pupil size
• Photograted glasses
MANAGEMENT

73. • A new method of treating diplopia that does not have the limitations of
traditional patching has been successfully evaluated.
• The "spot patch" is a procedure that eliminates diplopia without compromising
peripheral vision.
• It is a small, usually round or oval, patch made of 3-M TransporeTM tape, 3-M
blurring film (or another such translucent tape).
• It is placed on the inside of the lenses of glasses and directly in the line of sight
contributing to the diplopia.
SELECTIVE PARTIAL OCCLUSION
(SPOT PATCH)

74. • The "spot patch" works because it effectively eliminates central
vision in the partially occluded eye.
• Diplopia is perceived as a central visual phenomena when the
visual axes do not align.
• The size of the diplopic zone is not known for certain, but is
believed by this author to correspond to Panum's fusional area,
which is approximately 25 by 25 minutes of arc.
• Diplopia does not seem to be perceived outside of this zone.

75. • Central vision is necessary for examining small areas of detail, visual acuity
and stereopsis.
• Peripheral vision is necessary for evaluating space in general around the
body, motion detection, orientation and mobility.
•

76. • With the "spot patch" central vision is sufficiently blurred to
eliminate the diplopic image, but not completely eliminate
vision.
• Peripheral vision is not eliminated with the "spot patch“, the
patient does not lose peripheral fusion/visual field/ the visual
components of orientation, balance and mobility.

77. • Creates a monocular central scotoma
inversely mirroring the physiological
variation in spatial acuity across the
monocular visual field, suppressing the
diplopia with minimal impact on the
periphery.
• This simple, inexpensive, non-invasive
device may thus be an effective new tool
in the treatment of a familiar but still
troublesome clinical problem.
Robert MP1, Bonci F2, Pandit A2, Ferguson V3, Nachev P4. The scotogenic contact
lens: a novel device for treating binocular diplopiaBr J Ophthalmol. 2015
Aug;99(8):1022-4. doi: 10.1136/bjophthalmol-2014-305985. Epub 2015 Feb 13
SOFT CONTACT LENS

78. • Often when patients with anisometropia receive a new pair of glasses, they will
complain of double vision, particularly while reading.
• This double vision is due to the differential prismatic effects of the two lenses when the
patient is looking off-center as when reading (as per Prentice’s Rule)
• . In order to improve reading vision, vertical prism can be incorporated into the lower
portion of one lens or the other to help compensate for the differential vertical
prismatic effect and lessen or eliminate the double vision.
• These prisms are referred to as slab-off or reverse-slab prisms.
• The slab-off prism is placed on the more minus or less plus lens, more commonly on
glass lenses, and in effect takes away base-down prism (adds base-up prism).
• The reverse-slab prism is placed on the more plus or less minus lens, most commonly
on molded plastic lenses, and adds base-down prism.
PRISMS

79. FRESNEL PRISMS:
• Composed of concentric annular rings.
• Principle: the prism apex deviates light just
as much as any other part of the lens.
• Sheet of prism apices on a thin base sheet
used to obtain a prismatic effect across the
lens without creating additional lens
thickness.
• Method of choice for temporary use. Upto
30° can be applied to either eye but high
powered prisms may not be tolerated.Upto
20° can be worn comfortably
• The prism is normally fitted to the back
surface of the spectacle lens.

80. • 1980 and 2007in to achieve its desired effect, directly injected into the belly of an
extraocular muscle.
• Operating room under direct visualization or through the use of electromyographic
techniques, though some surgeons do not feel that electromyography use is critical to
the success of the procedure .
• It is supplied in individual vials containing 100 units of freeze-dried toxin. Each unit
contains approximately 0.25 ng of the protein.
• The toxin must be stored in a freezer until it is ready for use. Toxin is prepared for
injection by reconstituting with nonpreserved normal saline.
• Typically, for the treatment of strabismus, the desired concentration is 2.5 units/0.1 ml
of solution
Dawson EL1, Maino A, Lee JP. Botulinum toxin may be used to
assess the likelihood of reducing the abnormal head posture and
reducing the diplopia by increasing the field of binocular single vision
BOTULISM TOXIN

81. Botox injection to Medial Rectus
For lateral rectus ischemic palsy

82. Thank
you