This document summarizes techniques for gastroenterological examination in ruminants. It describes how to gather a medical history and observe the animal from a distance. It outlines examination of the mouth, abdomen, rumen, intestines and feces. Specific techniques are discussed like auscultation, percussion, palpation, passing a stomach tube, rumen fluid analysis, and abdominocentesis. The goal is to detect diseases of the gastrointestinal tract through physical examination and specialized tests.

1. GASTROENTEROLOGICAL EXAMINATION IN
RUMINANTS
Radhika Vaidya
Phd. 1st Year
GBPUA&T, Pantnagar

2. Gastroenterological examination

3. History
 Vaccination and anthelmintic protocols
 Recent outbreaks of disease such as
salmonellosis
 Endemic such as johne’s disease
 Recent changes in diet or management
 Introductions of new replacement stock or
heifers joining herd
 Time of onset, the duration, number affected
and the severity and the signs of disease
observed

4. Observations at a distance
 Behavioural manifestations of abdominal
pain
 Straining in attempts to defaecate (rectal
tenesmus)
 rate of eructation, regurgitation
 In chronic conditions there may be a low
body condition score and loss of weight
kicking at the abdomen
reluctance to get up and down
movements made with care
grunting

5.  Dropping of the cud
 Ruminal tympany
 Sunken eyes
 Increased respiratory rate(metabolic
acidosis)
 Recumbency
 Reduction in the quantity and a change in
the composition of the faeces
 Jaundice (non-pigmented areas of the skin
such as the udder)
 Neurological signs (hepatic
encephalopathy)
 Distension and changes in the silhouette of

6. Normal silhouette of the lateral
contours of the abdomen
(Posterior view)
Ruminal bloat causing
distention of left dorsal
quadrant of

7. Pneumoperitoneum causing distention
of the left and right dorsal quadrants of
the abdomen. Posterior view
Vagal indigestion causing distention
of the left dorsal and right ventral
quadrants of the abdomen. Posterior
view.

8. Vagus indigestion syndrome

9. Ascites causing gross distension of the
right and left ventral quadrants of the
abdomen Posterior view.

10. Examination of Mouth

12.  Malocclusion of the upper and lower jaws is seen occasionally
as a result of developmental abnormality
 Neurological lesions affecting prehension, mastication and
swallowing of food may occur
 Inability to co-ordinate lip movements : 7th cranial (facial) nerve
 Inability to move the tongue :12th cranial (hypoglossal)
nerve(alkaloid toxicity, botulism or in listeriosis)
 Inability to swallow : 9th cranial (glossopharyngeal) nerve &10th
cranial (vagus) nerve (local damage to nerves by abscess or
tumour formation)
 signs of ulceration or damage:
Buccal mucosa:
 diphtheritic membranes which are visible adjacent to the cheek
teeth in some cases of calf diphtheria (necrotic stomatitis)
 vesicles of foot-and mouth disease
Dental pad:
 bovine papular stomatitis,
 Bovine virus diarrhoea,
 foot-and-mouth disease

13. Mouth of calf showing (a) lesions of calf diphtheria
(necrotic stomatitis) and also (b) a cleft palate.
 Milk may run from the nose
when a calf with this defect
tries to swallow
 The defect may be narrow and
small or involve most of the
roof of the mouth.

14.  wooden tongue caused by Actinobacillus
lignieresii tongue is very firm and inflexible
to the touch; the animal is unable to
advance it through the lips and excessive
salivation may be seen
 Paralysis of the tongue is seen in cases of
botulism

15. Passage of nasogastric tube in a cow to confirm and
possibly treat an oesophageal foreign body

16. Endoscopic view of bovine
oesophagus

17. Examination of the left
abdomen
Assessment of the rumen
and reticulum
To check for evidence of a
left displaced abomasum.

18. Rumen and reticulum
 Normal animal the contents of the upper part
of the rumen have a doughy consistency, but
digital pressure should not leave a lasting
impression once palpation ceases
 In vagal indigestion there may be rumen
overfill with fibre and an impression of a fist
pushed into the sublumbar fossa will remain
following withdrawal

19. Rumen
movements observation of the sublumbar fossa
 palpation of rumen
 auscultation of the rumen
• Auscultation of the rumen movements by
stethoscope is the most sensitive of the three
methods (weak contractions can be detected
that may be missed by the other techniques)
• Rasping or crushing sound or as crackling
crescendo–decrescendo rolling thunder (persist
for 5 to 8 seconds)Auscultation of reticular contractions: auscultation over
ribs 6 or 7 ventrally on the left side

21. Changes in rumen motility
 Hypomotility (less than one movement every2
minutes)
 Rumenostasis may cause a free gas bloat and is
associated with a number of conditions
including milk fever, carbohydrate engorgement
(ruminal acidosis) and painful conditions of the
abodmen
 Hypermotility (more than five movements every
2 minutes) is less common and conditions

22. Percussion of the left abdominal
wall
 Resonance over the gas in the dorsal sac of
the rumen
 As the percussion proceeds ventrally the
resonance declines over the fibre and fluid
sectors of the rumen
 A diagnosis of ruminal bloat can be
supported if hyper-resonance is present on
percussion of the distended left sublumbar
fossa

23. Anterior abdominal pain
The withers pinch test for anterior
abdominal pain
animal is reluctant to move, has an
arched
back and grunts while defaecating
with a
raised tail

24. The bar test for anterior abdominal
pain

25. Left displacement of the
abomasum
 High yielding dairy cows (usually recognised
during first few weeks after calving)
 Fluid and gas filled displaced abomasum is
between the left abdominal wall and the rumen
 Musical tinkling sounds produced by escaping
gas bubbles can sometimes be heard by simple
auscultation (produced in response to adjacent
ruminal movements)
 High pitched resonant pings can be produced by
percussion of the displaced abomasum

26. A left displaced abomasum (posterior
transverse view at the level of 13 th rib)

27. Topographical location of abnormal pings that may
be produced by percussion and auscultation in the
presence of a left displaced abomasum: a left lateral
view.
9th to the 13th rib
along this line is
often the most
rewarding

29.  gravid uterus
 abomasum
 intestines
 liver
Examination of right side of
the abdomen

30. Distension of the right sublumbar
fossa
 right-sided abomasal displacement
 caecal dilatation and/or torsion
 vagal indigestion
 omasal impaction
 abomasal impaction

31. Simultaneous percussion and
auscultation
 Conditions producing pings include:
 abomasal dilatation
 caecal dilatation or torsion
 gas in the rectum
 pneumoperitoneum

32. Topographical location of abnormal pings that may be
produced by percussion and auscultation in the
presence of a right displaced abomasum and a
distended caecum: right lateral view

33. Intestines
 Normal intestinal sounds (borborygmi) can be
heard intermittently in the right ventral
quadrant (occur every 15 to 30 seconds)
 Repeated peristaltic sounds may indicate
intestinal hypermotility
 Splashing sounds caused by excessive fluid
in the intestines may be detected by
ballottement and succussion (enteritis,
ruminal acidosis or intestinalobstruction)

34. Liver
 clinical signs
 palpation and percussion
 clinical pathology and liver function tests
 ultrasonography
 liver biopsy
 radiography, laparoscopy,
 exploratory laparotomy
 postmortem examination.

35. Palpation and percussion
 The liver lies beneath the costal arch and
cannot normally be palpated
 If it is grossly enlarged or displaced
posteriorly it may be palpated by pushing
the fingers behind the right costal arch
 chronic liver fluke infestation
 congestive heart failure

37.  Distended rumen
 Caecal dilatation and torsion
 Gut tie
 Intestinal intussusception
 Gas or fluid content of the abnormal viscus
 Indicators of peritonitis such as adhesions
 Quantity and composition of the faeces
Rectal examination

38.  L-shaped rumen: occurs commonly in vagus indigestion
and other diseases of the rumen characterized by gradual
distension of the rumen
 Cecal torsion: commonly palpable as long distended
organ, usually movable, may feel the blind end
 Abomasal torsion: commonly palpable as tense viscus in
lower right half of abdomen
 Abomasal impaction: not usually palpable in late
pregnancy
 Left-side displacement of the abomasum: usually cannot
palpate the displaced abomasum but can often feel
rumen, which is usually smaller than normal

39.  Intussusception: not always palpable, dependent
on location of intussusception and the size of the
animal
 Mesenteric torsion: usually palpable
 Intestinal incarceration: commonly palpable
 Peritonitis: only palpable if peritoneum of
posterior aspect of abdomen affected
 Lipomatosis: commonly palpable as 'lumps' in
the abdomen and pelvic Cavity

40. Examination of the faeces

41. AMOUNT
 Mature cattle generally pass some feces
every 1.5-2 hours, amounting to a total of 30-
50 kg/day in 10-24 portions
 Reduction in the bulk of feces:
 decrease in feed or water intake
 a retardation of the passage through the
alimentary tract
Diarrhea: the feces are passed more frequently
and in greater amounts than normal and
contain a higher water content (>90%) than
normal

42. ABSENCE OF OR SCANT
FAECES
 Failure to pass any feces for 24 hours or
more is abnormal and the continued
absence of feces may be due to a physical
intestinal obstruction
 Paralytic ileus of the intestines due to
peritonitis or idiopathic intestinal tympany
also result in a marked reduction in feces,
sometimes a complete absence, for up to 3
days

43. Some common causes of physical and functional
obstruction of the alimentary tract of cattle

44. COLOR
 Influenced by nature of the feed, the
concentration of bile in the feces and the
passage rate through the digestive tract
 Calves reared on cows' milk normally produce
golden yellow feces, which become pale
brown when hay or straw is eaten
 Feces of adult cattle on green forage are dark
olive-green, on a hay ration more brown-olive,
while the ingestion of large amounts of grain
produces gray-olive feces

45. ODOR
 Fresh bovine feces are not normally
malodorous
 Objectionable odors are usually due to
putrefaction or fermentation of ingesta,
usually associated with inflammation
 The feces in cattle with salmonellosis may
be fetid

46. CONSISTENCY
 Normal bovine feces are of a medium porridge –like
consistency
 severe dehydration causes the formation of firm balls
of feces arranged in facets inside the rectum, the
surfaces of which are dark and coated with mucus
 The feces of cows with left side displacement of the
abomasum are commonly pasty in appearance
 Sticky and tenacious feces are commonly seen in
obstruction of the fore stomachs (vagus indigestion,

47. OTHER SUBSTANCES IN THE
FECES
 Mucus: increased transit time of the ingesta in
the large intestine
 plug of mucus in the rectum is suggestive of a
functional obstruction (paralytic ileus)
 Fibrin:
 In fibrinous enteritis, fibrin may be excreted in
the form of long strands, which may mold into
a print of the intestinal lumen (intestinal
fibrinous casts)

48. Special Examination

49. Rumen fluid collection
 Nasogastric tube or an oral stomach tube
 Rumenocentesis

50. Passing a stomach tube into the rumen per
nasum with auscultation at the left sublumbar
fossa

51. Rumen fluid analysis
 Colour: Normal olive green or greenish brown
 pH: 6.0 to 7.0 in cattle on a roughage-based
diet
5.5 to 6.5 in cattle on concentrate-based
diet
 Sedimentation/flotation:4 to 8 minutes
(Inactive microflora rapid sedimentation with
little floating)
 Redox potential (methylene blue reduction
time): 3 to 6 minutes (>15 min inactive flora)
 Protozoal activity

52. Abdominocentesis and peritoneal
fluid analysis
 usually only 15 to 20 ml of peritoneal fluid in the
peritoneal cavity
 Volume:0 to 5ml (10ml or above may indicate a
pathological process)
 Colour: clear, straw coloured or yellow
 A turbid sample indicates an increased protein
and cellular content
 Clotting of the sample indicates an increase in the
viscosity of the peritoneal fluid due to
inflammatory processes
 A high specific gravity and high protein content
suggest vascular damage and leakage of plasma
proteins in peritonitis or ischaemic necrosis of the

54. Sites at which to perform an
abdominocentesis

55. References
 Clinical Examination of Farm Animals by Peter
G.G. Jackson and Peter D. Cockcroft
 Veterinary Clinical examination And diagnosis
by Otto M Radositis, I G Joe Maythew and
Dorren M Housten
 VETERINARY MEDICINE A textbook of the
diseases of cattle, horses, sheep, pigs and
goats 10th edition by O. M. Radostits, C.C.Gay,
K. W. Hinchcliff &P. D. Constable