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STOP SHOUTING! I Can’t Hear My Motivation Talking
Nick Winkelman, PhD | Head of Athletic Performance & Science | Irish Rugby
mo·ti·va·tion:
The reason or reasons one has for acting
or behaving in a particular way
What do we typically think about when we
hear the word ‘Motivation’?
Stop Shouting! I Can't Hear My Motivation Talking
Stop Shouting! I Can't Hear My Motivation Talking
Remember The Person
That Gave Up?
Neither does
anyone else!
What do all these forms of motivation have
in common?
Externally Regulated
Is BEING motivated the same as
being motivated?
Probably Not
Empty
GONE
Alone
How sustainable and effective is
this form of motivation?
ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL
ROLE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL
ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL
ROLE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
ROLE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
ROLE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL
Motivation
01 ‘Self-Determination Theory’
SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
Within social-cognitive theory, SDT proposes
that intrinsic motivation emerges in accordance
with the fulfillment of psychological needs
SDT emphasizes the “role of the environment
(i.e., coach) in fueling people’s perceptions of
self-determined autonomy, competence, and
relatedness”
(Deci & Ryan, 1985; Mallett, 2005)
Autonomy
(Control)
CompetenceRelatedness
SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
Autonomy
(Control)
Competence
Relatedness
SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
The opportunity to govern one’s self;
freedom from unwanted external control
and influence; self-directed
The ability and belief in one’s ability to
successfully perform a task; self-efficacy
The connection one has with others;
shared empathy and the ability to relate
to another person’s point of view
Intrinsic
Motivation
Integrated
Regulation
Identified
Regulation
Amotivation
External
Regulation
Introjected
Regulation
Enjoyment,
pleasure,
and fun
No rewards
Integrated
behaviors
satisfying a
psych-
ological
need
Behaviors
based on
identified
value to
individual
Lack of
personal
intention or
causation
Behaviors
based on
avoiding
external
punishment
or gaining
rewards
Behaviors
based on
avoiding
external
disapproval
or gaining
approval
Basic Psychological Needs
Autonomy RelatednessCompetence
Extrinsic Motivation
High (Control) Autonomy Low (Control) Autonomy
Integrated High LowInternalization (Ryan & Deci, 2007)
Internal
(Intrinsic)
Partially
Internal
External
(Extrinsic)
Partially
External
Sport is a part
of who I am.
I am driven to
win, but I also
love the
environment
and the
competition
I play sport
because I
enjoy the
competition,
but most of
all, I love
to win
I play sport
because I feel
pressured to
do so by my
parents and
coach
I play sport
because all
of my friends
play and I
want to fit it
Self-Determined Non Self-Determined
High Internalization Low Internalization
Motivation: Sport Example
Amotivation
There is no
point trying
as my
success is
unlikely or
impossible
Intrinsic
I love sport
and will
continue
playing
throughout
my life
How do I influence one’s Self-
Determination as a coach?
Controlling Behaviors:
“Pressure to think, feel, or behave in specified
ways, thereby ignoring the person’s needs and
feelings…Power-assertive…Pressure to comply.”
(Mageau & Vallerand, 2003, p. 886)
Autonomy-Supportive Behaviors:
“Takes the other’s perspective, acknowledges
the other’s feelings, and provides the other with
pertinent information and opportunities for
choice, while minimizing the use of pressure
and demands.”
(Mageau & Vallerand, 2003, p. 886)
Motivation emerges when the basic psychological needs
for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are fulfilled
Motivation is multidimensional and changes based on
the task, situation, and environment
Coaches can affect motivation through developing
controlling or autonomy-supportive environments
Take Home Message
Should motivation just … motivate …
or is there something else?
Motor Learning
02 ‘Self-Determination Theory’
More Effort
& Persistence
(Mageau & Vallerand, 2003)
Perform
Better
(Mageau & Vallerand, 2003)
(Mageau & Vallerand, 2003)
Concentration
(Sanli et al., 2013)
Providing individuals with controlled choice over a specific practice
variable has been shown to improve motor learning and skill acquisition
Choice No Choice
When given the opportunity to control feedback, individuals
will request feedback less often the more they perform a task
(Chiviacowsky et al., 2008)
When given the opportunity to control feedback, players will
request feedback <30% of the time (as low as 7%)
(Chiviacowsky et al., 2008; Janell et al., 1995/1997)
Players will request feedback after successful trials more
often than they will request feedback after poor trials
(Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2002/2007)
(Wulf &Toole, 1999; Keetch & Lee, 2007; Andrieux et al., 2012 )
Providing individuals with choice over progressions and difficulty
has been shown to improve motor learning and skill acquisition
Practice is individualised to the player
(i.e., Feedback, Demonstrations, & Progressions)
Players can request feedback after ‘good reps’
Players extract more information from demonstrations
Self-control leads to higher motivation, active involvement in
the learning process, and deeper information processing
Take Home Message
(Wulf, 2007)
How do I apply this principle in my setting?
Motivational Environment
03 ‘Autonomy…Competence...Relatedness’
mo·ti·va·tion; move·ment; mo·tor:
Share the Latin Root movere, meaning to move
“Humans are more than neutral processors of
information, and evidence suggests that learning
is optimized by practice conditions that account
for motivational factors.”
(Lewthwaite & Wulf, 2012, p. 173)
MOTIVATIONMOTOR LEARNING
Autonomy
Provide controlled choice when appropriate
(Mageau & Vallerand, 2003)
(Mageau & Vallerand, 2003)
Provide a rationale for programming elements
and any training limitations
(Mageau & Vallerand, 2003)
Acknowledge the player’s feelings and
perspectives relative to the training process
(Mageau & Vallerand, 2003)
Empower players to take initiative within and
outside of the training process
Competence
Purposeful struggle engages the client while
preserving their sense of competence
Comfort Zone
>80% Success
“Sweet Spot”
50-80% Success
Survival Zone
<50 Success
(Chiviacowsky et al., 2012; Coyle, 2012)
Low
Beginner
Intermediate
Skilled
Expert
PotentialforLearning
High
Low HighTask Difficulty (Progression)
=
Optimal Task
Difficulty
Challenge Point Hypothesis
(Guadagnoli & Lee, 2004)
(Nieuwenhuis et al., 2005; West et al., 2005)
Positive feedback
drives learning &
motivation
(Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2002/2007)
Reinforce the good
more often than
correcting the bad
Provide feedback
on the ‘Process’
over the ‘Person’
“I can see that your hard
work is paying off, your
pass/kick has improved”
VS.
“You have
amazing ability”
(Kamins & Dweck, 1999)
RELATEDNESS
Group training environments create the
strongest opportunity for relatedness
Create individual challenge within the context of a
unified group effort…create a common bond
When possible create opportunities for individuals
to PR and rally the team around their effort
Create a culture where individual and team
success are one
Provide players with the opportunity to interact
within the context of training sessions
Player interaction will result in peer coaching
and observational learning
Give players a stage to be heard…Start and finish every
session with a message…”Whose Got The Breakdown”
TAKE HOME MESSAGE
04
Optimizing the motivational climate involves a balance of
contribution from the coach and the player
Autonomy-supportive environments enrich athletes and help them to feel
“self-determined” in their development of competence and relatedness
Developing environments that drive relatedness act as a protective
agent over an athlete’s competence and affirms their use of autonomy
63© 2014 Athletes’ Performance, Inc.
In the end…
It is not about motivating the player, rather, it is
about creating an environment that allows
players to motivate themselves
_ Andrieux, M., Danna, J., & Thon, B. (2012). Self-control of task difficulty during training enhances motor learning of
a complex coincidence-anticipation task. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 83(1), 27-35.
_ Chiviacowsky, S., & Wulf, G. (2002). Self-controlled feedback: Does it enhance learning because performers get
feedback when they need it?. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 73(4), 408-415.
_ Chiviacowsky, S., & Wulf, G. (2007). Feedback after good trials enhances learning. Research Quarterly for Exercise
and Sport, 78(2), 40-47.
_ Chiviacowsky, S., Wulf, G., de Medeiros, F. L., Kaefer, A., & Tani, G. (2008). Learning benefits of self-controlled
knowledge of results in 10-year-old children. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 79(3), 405-410.
_ Chiviacowsky, S., Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2012). Self-controlled learning: the importance of protecting
perceptions of competence. Frontiers in psychology, 3.
REFERENCES
_ Coyle, D. (2012). The little book of talent: 52 tips for improving your skills. Random House
LLC.
_ Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior,
1985.
_ Deci, E. L., & Flaste, R. (1995). Why we do what we do: The dynamics of personal autonomy.
GP Putnam's Sons.
_ Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and
the self-determination of behavior. Psychological inquiry,11(4), 227-268.
_ Guadagnoli, M. A., & Lee, T. D. (2004). Challenge point: a framework for conceptualizing the
effects of various practice conditions in motor learning. Journal of motor behavior, 36(2),
212-224.
REFERENCES
_ Janelle, C. M., Kim, J., & Singer, R. N. (1995). Subject-controlled performance feedback and learning of a closed motor
skill. Perceptual and motor skills,81(2), 627-634.
_ Janelle, C. M., Barba, D. A., Frehlich, S. G., Tennant, L. K., & Cauraugh, J. H. (1997). Maximizing performance feedback
effectiveness through videotape replay and a self-controlled learning environment. Research Quarterly for Exercise and
Sport, 68(4), 269-279.
_ Kamins, M. L., & Dweck, C. S. (1999). Person versus process praise and criticism: implications for contingent self-worth and
coping. Developmental psychology, 35(3), 835.
_ Keetch, K. M., & Lee, T. D. (2007). The effect of self-regulated and experimenter-imposed practice schedules on motor
learning for tasks of varying difficulty. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 78(5), 476-486.
_ Lewthwaite, R., & Wulf, G. (2012). 10 Motor learning through a motivational lens. Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory
and Practice, 173.
REFERENCES
_ Mageau, G. A., & Vallerand, R. J. (2003). The coach–athlete relationship: A motivational model. Journal of sports
science, 21(11), 883-904.
_ Mallett, C. J. (2005). Self-Determination Theory: A Case Study of Evidence-Based Coaching. Sport
psychologist, 19(4).
_ Mouratidis, A., Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Sideridis, G. (2008). The motivating role of positive feedback in sport
and physical education: evidence for a motivational model. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 30(2).
_ Mouratidis, A., Lens, W., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2010). How you provide corrective feedback makes a difference: the
motivating role of communicating in an autonomy-supporting way. Journal of sport & exercise psychology, 32(5).
_ Nieuwenhuis, S., Slagter, H. A., Geusau, V., Alting, N. J., Heslenfeld, D. J., & Holroyd, C. B. (2005). Knowing good from
bad: differential activation of human cortical areas by positive and negative outcomes. European Journal of
Neuroscience, 21(11), 3161-3168.
_ Pink, D. H. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. Penguin.
REFERENCES
_ Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2007). Active human nature: Self-determination theory and the
promotion and maintenance of sport, exercise, and health. Intrinsic motivation and self-
determination in exercise and sport, 1-19.
_ Sanli, E. A., Patterson, J. T., Bray, S. R., & Lee, T. D. (2012). Understanding self-controlled motor
learning protocols through the self-determination theory.Frontiers in psychology, 3.
_ Su, Y. L., & Reeve, J. (2011). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of intervention programs designed
to support autonomy. Educational Psychology Review, 23(1), 159-188.
_ West, R. L., Bagwell, D. K., & Dark-Freudeman, A. (2005). Memory and goal setting: the response of
older and younger adults to positive and objective feedback. Psychology and aging, 20(2), 195.
REFERENCES
_ Wulf, G., & Toole, T. (1999). Physical assistance devices in complex motor skill learning: Benefits of
a self-controlled practice schedule. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70(3), 265-272.
_ Wulf, G. (2007). Self-controlled practice enhances motor learning: implications for
physiotherapy. Physiotherapy, 93(2), 96-101.
_ Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2016). Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and
attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychonomic bulletin & review,
23(5), 1382-1414.
_ Wulf, G., Lewthwaite, R., Cardozo, P., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2017). Triple play: Additive contributions
of enhanced expectancies, autonomy support, and external attentional focus to motor learning.
The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1-22.
REFERENCES

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Stop Shouting! I Can't Hear My Motivation Talking

  • 1. STOP SHOUTING! I Can’t Hear My Motivation Talking Nick Winkelman, PhD | Head of Athletic Performance & Science | Irish Rugby
  • 2. mo·ti·va·tion: The reason or reasons one has for acting or behaving in a particular way
  • 3. What do we typically think about when we hear the word ‘Motivation’?
  • 6. Remember The Person That Gave Up? Neither does anyone else!
  • 7. What do all these forms of motivation have in common? Externally Regulated
  • 8. Is BEING motivated the same as being motivated? Probably Not
  • 10. GONE
  • 11. Alone
  • 12. How sustainable and effective is this form of motivation?
  • 13. ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL ROLE OF THE ENVIRONMENT ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL ROLE OF THE ENVIRONMENT ROLE OF THE ENVIRONMENT ROLE OF THE ENVIRONMENT ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL
  • 15. SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY Within social-cognitive theory, SDT proposes that intrinsic motivation emerges in accordance with the fulfillment of psychological needs SDT emphasizes the “role of the environment (i.e., coach) in fueling people’s perceptions of self-determined autonomy, competence, and relatedness” (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Mallett, 2005)
  • 17. Autonomy (Control) Competence Relatedness SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY The opportunity to govern one’s self; freedom from unwanted external control and influence; self-directed The ability and belief in one’s ability to successfully perform a task; self-efficacy The connection one has with others; shared empathy and the ability to relate to another person’s point of view
  • 18. Intrinsic Motivation Integrated Regulation Identified Regulation Amotivation External Regulation Introjected Regulation Enjoyment, pleasure, and fun No rewards Integrated behaviors satisfying a psych- ological need Behaviors based on identified value to individual Lack of personal intention or causation Behaviors based on avoiding external punishment or gaining rewards Behaviors based on avoiding external disapproval or gaining approval Basic Psychological Needs Autonomy RelatednessCompetence Extrinsic Motivation High (Control) Autonomy Low (Control) Autonomy Integrated High LowInternalization (Ryan & Deci, 2007)
  • 19. Internal (Intrinsic) Partially Internal External (Extrinsic) Partially External Sport is a part of who I am. I am driven to win, but I also love the environment and the competition I play sport because I enjoy the competition, but most of all, I love to win I play sport because I feel pressured to do so by my parents and coach I play sport because all of my friends play and I want to fit it Self-Determined Non Self-Determined High Internalization Low Internalization Motivation: Sport Example Amotivation There is no point trying as my success is unlikely or impossible Intrinsic I love sport and will continue playing throughout my life
  • 20. How do I influence one’s Self- Determination as a coach?
  • 21. Controlling Behaviors: “Pressure to think, feel, or behave in specified ways, thereby ignoring the person’s needs and feelings…Power-assertive…Pressure to comply.” (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003, p. 886)
  • 22. Autonomy-Supportive Behaviors: “Takes the other’s perspective, acknowledges the other’s feelings, and provides the other with pertinent information and opportunities for choice, while minimizing the use of pressure and demands.” (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003, p. 886)
  • 23. Motivation emerges when the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are fulfilled Motivation is multidimensional and changes based on the task, situation, and environment Coaches can affect motivation through developing controlling or autonomy-supportive environments Take Home Message
  • 24. Should motivation just … motivate … or is there something else?
  • 26. More Effort & Persistence (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003)
  • 28. (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003) Concentration
  • 29. (Sanli et al., 2013) Providing individuals with controlled choice over a specific practice variable has been shown to improve motor learning and skill acquisition Choice No Choice
  • 30. When given the opportunity to control feedback, individuals will request feedback less often the more they perform a task (Chiviacowsky et al., 2008)
  • 31. When given the opportunity to control feedback, players will request feedback <30% of the time (as low as 7%) (Chiviacowsky et al., 2008; Janell et al., 1995/1997)
  • 32. Players will request feedback after successful trials more often than they will request feedback after poor trials (Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2002/2007)
  • 33. (Wulf &Toole, 1999; Keetch & Lee, 2007; Andrieux et al., 2012 ) Providing individuals with choice over progressions and difficulty has been shown to improve motor learning and skill acquisition
  • 34. Practice is individualised to the player (i.e., Feedback, Demonstrations, & Progressions) Players can request feedback after ‘good reps’ Players extract more information from demonstrations Self-control leads to higher motivation, active involvement in the learning process, and deeper information processing Take Home Message (Wulf, 2007)
  • 35. How do I apply this principle in my setting?
  • 37. mo·ti·va·tion; move·ment; mo·tor: Share the Latin Root movere, meaning to move
  • 38. “Humans are more than neutral processors of information, and evidence suggests that learning is optimized by practice conditions that account for motivational factors.” (Lewthwaite & Wulf, 2012, p. 173)
  • 41. Provide controlled choice when appropriate (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003)
  • 42. (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003) Provide a rationale for programming elements and any training limitations
  • 43. (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003) Acknowledge the player’s feelings and perspectives relative to the training process
  • 44. (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003) Empower players to take initiative within and outside of the training process
  • 46. Purposeful struggle engages the client while preserving their sense of competence Comfort Zone >80% Success “Sweet Spot” 50-80% Success Survival Zone <50 Success (Chiviacowsky et al., 2012; Coyle, 2012)
  • 47. Low Beginner Intermediate Skilled Expert PotentialforLearning High Low HighTask Difficulty (Progression) = Optimal Task Difficulty Challenge Point Hypothesis (Guadagnoli & Lee, 2004)
  • 48. (Nieuwenhuis et al., 2005; West et al., 2005) Positive feedback drives learning & motivation
  • 49. (Chiviacowsky & Wulf, 2002/2007) Reinforce the good more often than correcting the bad
  • 50. Provide feedback on the ‘Process’ over the ‘Person’ “I can see that your hard work is paying off, your pass/kick has improved” VS. “You have amazing ability” (Kamins & Dweck, 1999)
  • 52. Group training environments create the strongest opportunity for relatedness
  • 53. Create individual challenge within the context of a unified group effort…create a common bond
  • 54. When possible create opportunities for individuals to PR and rally the team around their effort
  • 55. Create a culture where individual and team success are one
  • 56. Provide players with the opportunity to interact within the context of training sessions
  • 57. Player interaction will result in peer coaching and observational learning
  • 58. Give players a stage to be heard…Start and finish every session with a message…”Whose Got The Breakdown”
  • 60. Optimizing the motivational climate involves a balance of contribution from the coach and the player
  • 61. Autonomy-supportive environments enrich athletes and help them to feel “self-determined” in their development of competence and relatedness
  • 62. Developing environments that drive relatedness act as a protective agent over an athlete’s competence and affirms their use of autonomy
  • 63. 63© 2014 Athletes’ Performance, Inc. In the end… It is not about motivating the player, rather, it is about creating an environment that allows players to motivate themselves
  • 64. _ Andrieux, M., Danna, J., & Thon, B. (2012). Self-control of task difficulty during training enhances motor learning of a complex coincidence-anticipation task. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 83(1), 27-35. _ Chiviacowsky, S., & Wulf, G. (2002). Self-controlled feedback: Does it enhance learning because performers get feedback when they need it?. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 73(4), 408-415. _ Chiviacowsky, S., & Wulf, G. (2007). Feedback after good trials enhances learning. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 78(2), 40-47. _ Chiviacowsky, S., Wulf, G., de Medeiros, F. L., Kaefer, A., & Tani, G. (2008). Learning benefits of self-controlled knowledge of results in 10-year-old children. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 79(3), 405-410. _ Chiviacowsky, S., Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2012). Self-controlled learning: the importance of protecting perceptions of competence. Frontiers in psychology, 3. REFERENCES
  • 65. _ Coyle, D. (2012). The little book of talent: 52 tips for improving your skills. Random House LLC. _ Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior, 1985. _ Deci, E. L., & Flaste, R. (1995). Why we do what we do: The dynamics of personal autonomy. GP Putnam's Sons. _ Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological inquiry,11(4), 227-268. _ Guadagnoli, M. A., & Lee, T. D. (2004). Challenge point: a framework for conceptualizing the effects of various practice conditions in motor learning. Journal of motor behavior, 36(2), 212-224. REFERENCES
  • 66. _ Janelle, C. M., Kim, J., & Singer, R. N. (1995). Subject-controlled performance feedback and learning of a closed motor skill. Perceptual and motor skills,81(2), 627-634. _ Janelle, C. M., Barba, D. A., Frehlich, S. G., Tennant, L. K., & Cauraugh, J. H. (1997). Maximizing performance feedback effectiveness through videotape replay and a self-controlled learning environment. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 68(4), 269-279. _ Kamins, M. L., & Dweck, C. S. (1999). Person versus process praise and criticism: implications for contingent self-worth and coping. Developmental psychology, 35(3), 835. _ Keetch, K. M., & Lee, T. D. (2007). The effect of self-regulated and experimenter-imposed practice schedules on motor learning for tasks of varying difficulty. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 78(5), 476-486. _ Lewthwaite, R., & Wulf, G. (2012). 10 Motor learning through a motivational lens. Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory and Practice, 173. REFERENCES
  • 67. _ Mageau, G. A., & Vallerand, R. J. (2003). The coach–athlete relationship: A motivational model. Journal of sports science, 21(11), 883-904. _ Mallett, C. J. (2005). Self-Determination Theory: A Case Study of Evidence-Based Coaching. Sport psychologist, 19(4). _ Mouratidis, A., Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Sideridis, G. (2008). The motivating role of positive feedback in sport and physical education: evidence for a motivational model. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 30(2). _ Mouratidis, A., Lens, W., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2010). How you provide corrective feedback makes a difference: the motivating role of communicating in an autonomy-supporting way. Journal of sport & exercise psychology, 32(5). _ Nieuwenhuis, S., Slagter, H. A., Geusau, V., Alting, N. J., Heslenfeld, D. J., & Holroyd, C. B. (2005). Knowing good from bad: differential activation of human cortical areas by positive and negative outcomes. European Journal of Neuroscience, 21(11), 3161-3168. _ Pink, D. H. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. Penguin. REFERENCES
  • 68. _ Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2007). Active human nature: Self-determination theory and the promotion and maintenance of sport, exercise, and health. Intrinsic motivation and self- determination in exercise and sport, 1-19. _ Sanli, E. A., Patterson, J. T., Bray, S. R., & Lee, T. D. (2012). Understanding self-controlled motor learning protocols through the self-determination theory.Frontiers in psychology, 3. _ Su, Y. L., & Reeve, J. (2011). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of intervention programs designed to support autonomy. Educational Psychology Review, 23(1), 159-188. _ West, R. L., Bagwell, D. K., & Dark-Freudeman, A. (2005). Memory and goal setting: the response of older and younger adults to positive and objective feedback. Psychology and aging, 20(2), 195. REFERENCES
  • 69. _ Wulf, G., & Toole, T. (1999). Physical assistance devices in complex motor skill learning: Benefits of a self-controlled practice schedule. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70(3), 265-272. _ Wulf, G. (2007). Self-controlled practice enhances motor learning: implications for physiotherapy. Physiotherapy, 93(2), 96-101. _ Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2016). Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychonomic bulletin & review, 23(5), 1382-1414. _ Wulf, G., Lewthwaite, R., Cardozo, P., & Chiviacowsky, S. (2017). Triple play: Additive contributions of enhanced expectancies, autonomy support, and external attentional focus to motor learning. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1-22. REFERENCES