This document discusses Pap smear testing for cervical cancer screening. It begins by outlining the history of Pap smears and their endorsement as an effective screening method. It then discusses cervical cancer as the most common cancer in Indian women. The document covers the histological types of cervical cancer, the transformation zone of the cervix, and why screening is an important strategy. It provides details on taking a Pap smear, including sampling techniques and fixation. The document also discusses reporting systems, screening guidelines, limitations of Pap smears, and liquid-based cytology as an improved method. Throughout, it emphasizes that early detection of pre-cancerous lesions through regular Pap smear screening can prevent the majority of cervical cancers.
2. Cervical Cancer : Pap smear
George N Papanicolaou introduced cervical cytology in
clinical practice in 1940
In 1945, PAP smear was endorsed by American cancer
society as an effective method for prevention of cervical
cancer
Many countries now have National cervical screening
programs
3. Indian scenario
Commonest cancer in women in India
Major cause of deaths in women due to cancer
Usually diagnosed at advanced stage
No National program
Uniformly low incidence of cervical screening in India
(6% in rich & 4% in poor)
5. Transformation zone
Cervix develops from 2 embryonic sites
* from Mullerian duct - lined by columnar epithelium
* from urogenital plate - lined by stratified
squamous epithelium
Point at which columnar and squamous epithelium
meet is called as original squamo-columnar
junction
6. Transformation zone
Under influence of estrogen, original SCJ moves
onto the portio.
Exposure of delicate columnar cells to vaginal
environment leads to squamous metaplasia.
Transformation zone -
- Area of squamous metaplasia
- Area between original and new SCJ
8. Transformation Zone -TZ
Exposure of TZ to carcinogens begins the process of
intraepithelial neoplasia
While exact role of carcinogens in this process remains poorly
understood, it is clear that HPV and cigarette smoking can
cause dysplasia at the TZ
95% of cervical cancers develop in TZ
Important to take sample from TZ
10. Why cervical screening is a
feasible and useful strategy?
Relative accessibility of cervix to take the smear
Long natural history of cervical carcinogenesis
Relative conservative treatment for premalignant lesions
Cost effectiveness3
11. PAP Smear
PAP smear sampling of cervix involves scraping of
cervical surface and a portion of non visualised
cervical canal using various sampling devices
12. Significance of Pap smear
Detect precancerous & invasive cancer cervix cases in
early stages
Positive screeners can be selected for selective tests and
management
With treatment, progression of disease is halted. Thus
morbidity associated with advanced cancer decreases
Mortality reduces by 20-60 %.
Helps us to study natural history of disease.
13. Cervical Cancer : Pap smear
Early detection of pre-malignant lesions by Pap
smears prevent at least 70% of potential cervical
cancers.
14. Of the 30% who actually
develop cervical cancer:
8% elude cytological detection
- imperfections in cytological technology
- biologic behavior of malignant lesions
22% represent women who develop cervical cancer because of
failure to regularly seek Pap smears => women whose cancers
could have been prevented with early detection and treatment.
15. How to take a Pap Smear ?
Proper technique is very important
More problems are due to improper sampling than
screening
Not to be collected during menses
Avoid vaginal contraceptives, vaginal medications for at
least 48 hrs before taking smear
Abstinence for 24 hrs
Postpartum smear should be taken only after 6 - 8 weeks of
delivery
16. Patient in dorsal position
Good illumination is necessary
Cusco’s speculum is inserted to visualise & fix
the cervix
Inspection of cervix done & findings are noted
Ayres spatula is inserted first. It is placed at
cervical os so that longer end goes into cervical
canal and smaller end rests on ectocervix
How to take a Pap Smear ?
17. How to take a Pap Smear ?
Spatula is rotated through 360 degrees
maintaining contact with ectocervix
Do not use too much force [bleeding /pain]
Do not use too less force [inadequate sample]
Sample is smeared evenly on the slide and fixed
immediately
Both sides of spatula are to be smeared
18. How to take a Pap Smear ?
Endocervical sample is collected using an
endocervical brush
Insert the cytobrush into canal, so that last bristles
of brush are visible
Rotate the brush through 180 degrees. [more
rotations increase the chance of bleeding]
Sample is rolled on the slide and fixed.
19. Fixation of smear
Fixation is done immediately with
fixative like 95% alcohol or cytofix
spray to avoid air drying
Spray should be kept at 10 inches, to
avoid destruction of cells by
propellent in the spray
Smear should monolayer for proper
penetration of cell surface by fixative
20. How to take a Pap Smear ?
Slide should be labeled properly with patients name,
identification no. and details
Detailed history and clinical examination findings are to be
mentioned
Patient details and clinical findings are to be maintained in a
register
Advice is given regarding further follow up and treatment
21. Systems for cervical cytology reporting
George N Papanicolaou (1954)
5 classifications based on certainty of finding malignant cells
Descriptive system – WHO - (1968)
based on morphologic criteria – included mild, moderate,
severe dysplasia and Ca In Situ
Richart – CIN –based on histologic diagnosis
22. Systems for cervical cytology reporting
Bethesda system – TBS (1988)
National cancer institute revised in 1991 and 2001
Adequacy of smear must be determined before reporting
Smear is adequate when
- Patient identification
- adequate clinical history
23. Bethesda system
Interpretable cellular cytology
not obscured by inflammation, debris, blood, drying
not scanty smear
Adequate sampling from transformation zone
presence of at least 2 clusters of well preserved
endocervical cells or metaplastic cells
24. Bethesda system
Results :
Within normal limits ( WNL )
Benign cellular changes - this term was removed and
group was included in WNL in 2001
Reactive or Reparative changes – seen with atrophy,
inflammation, surgery, radiation, IUCD, tampoons
Infections – trichomoniasis, fungal, bacterial, HSV.
25. Bethesda system - results
Epithelial cells abnormalities
Squamous cells
• ASCUS
• ASCUS-H - suggestive of high grade lesion
• LSIL - changes associated with HPV, atypical
changes, mild dysplasia/ CIN1
• HSIL – moderate to severe dysplasia / CIN2, 3
and Ca In Situ
• HSIL – where invasion cannot be ruled out
• Squamous cell carcinoma
26. Bethesda system
Results :
Glandular cells – AGUS (Endocervical, endometrial)
Adenocarcinoma
(endocervical, endometrial, extrauterine)
Other malignant neoplasms
27. Normal cervix-cytology
Squamous cells
Exfoliated indivisual cells
Navicular in shape with abundant cytoplasm and small,
dark, round /oval, pyknotic nuclei
Glandular cells
Many times seen in clumps - linear or honeycombed
pattern.
Slightly larger and basal nuclei
28. Cervical cytology - Inflammation
Interpretation difficult due to inflammatory
background
Lot of neutrophils and blood can obscure
cellular details
31. Abnormal Pap smear- HPV
Peripherial condensation of cytoplasm -
wire looping effect
Koilocyte
32. PAP Descriptive CIN Bethesda
Class-1 negative negative WNL
Class 2
Inflammatory,
squamous, koilocytic
atypia
Reactive, reparatative
changes, ASCUS,
LSIL(HPV)
Class 3
Mild dysplasia
Moderate dysplasia
Severe dysplasia
CIN1
CIN2
CIN3
LSIL(HPV)
HSIL
HSIL
Class 4 Ca In Situ CIN3 HSIL
Class 5 Invasive Invasive Invasive
33. Single test will not detect cervical abnormality but with 3
negative tests there is less than 1% chance of cervical
abnormality
Conventional cytology has specificity of 98% and
sensitivity of 51%.
PAP smear
34. PAP Smears - Limitations
Low sensitivity 51%
False negative rates are due to faulty sampling, improper
fixation or interpretation problems
Large group population & high risk group screening not
possible
No consensus regarding testing
35. Pap smear as screening method
New guidelines
Target group - All women aged 18-70 yrs who have ever had sex
Timing of Initial Screening -
Initial screening at age of 21 years or within 3 years of sexual activity
ACOG Guidelines-(Aug2003), American Cancer Society (Nov 2002) and
U.S. Preventative Services Task Force (Jan 2003)
36. Pap smear - guidelines
Screening interval - yearly till the age of 30 then 3 yearly
When to End Screening
- After 70 yrs
- Post Hysterectomy
- done for benign lesions
- previous 3 normal PAP reports
- confirmed complete removal of cervical epithelium
37. Pap smear - guidelines
In high risk group after treatment for CIN
every 3 monthly for 2 years
every 6 monthly for 3yrs
Yearly thereafter
Women who had hysterectomy for CIN, it is necessary to do
vault smears
In women who received vaccination against HPV, it is
necessary to continue screening
38. Liquid Based Cytology
To improve results of PAP newer techniques like liquid
based cytology are recommended
Cells are obtained with a broom, then the head is broken
off in to a vial containing preservative fluid
In the laboratory the sample is spun to remove obscuring
material
It gives clearer image, no cell clumps
It will assist in future automated reading
39. Several slides can be prepared from one smear
Chlamydia, HPV testing can be done at later date
Reduces the incidence of inadequate and repeat smears
Liquid Based Cytology
40. Cancer Cervix IS PREVENTABLE ,
IF Detected EARLY!!!!!!!!!
Thank You