This document discusses the linguistic diversity in the United States. It begins with an overview of the major languages spoken in the US according to the 2000 Census, with English spoken by 82.1% of the population. The document then covers the history of languages in the US, including the early dominance of English, the decline of native American languages, and the growth of Spanish, French, and German immigrant populations. It also examines the ideology of English monolingualism that developed and the various language policies states have implemented, ranging from promotion of English to tolerance of other languages.

1. Languages in the United States:
Diversity or Uniformity?
Mariam Bedraoui
Master Student
Moroccan American Studies
Hassan II University, Casablanca
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2. Quick Facts about USA (2000 Census)
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3. Languages in the USA: The Overall Picture
English,
82.10%
Spanish,
10.70%
Indo-European
languages,
3.80%
Asian
Languages,
2.70%
Other
languages
, 0.70%
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4. Outline
I. An Overview of the Linguistic Situation in the USA
1. American English
2. Native American Languages
3. Spanish
4. French
5. German
II. Monolingualism and Multilingualism in the USA
1. The Underlying Ideology
2. Types of Policies
3. Examples of policies
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5. 1- English Language: Early Times on American Soil
 In 1787, the population in
the first colonies was about
4 million.
 90% came from the British
Isles.
 Early English settlers
established the linguistic
tradition that would
assimilate nearly all the
other immigrant groups.
 Most subsequent settlers
shifted to English language
in two generations.
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6. Immigration waves
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7. American English
In a letter addressed to the
Congress in 1780, John Adams
says:
“English is destined to be in the
next and succeeding centuries
more generally the language of the
world than Latin was or French is
in the present age. The reason of
this is so obvious, because the
increasing population of America,
and their universal connection and
correspondence with all nations will
[....] force their language into
general use.”
“Its [English] highest perfection,
with every branch of human
knowledge, is perhaps reserved for
this Land of light and freedom.”
Source: Cable, T., & Baugh, A. C.
(1991). In A history of the English
language.
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8. American English
National
consciousness
Linguistic
distinctiveness
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9. American English: Linguistic Distinctiveness
1- Vocabulary
 A number of words were imported from
American Native languages into English.
 Example: moose- raccoon- opossum- porgy
 New words about the landscape and produce
were coined.
 Examples: notch- watershed- foothill- clearing-
eggplants- sweet potato.
 The individual character of the political system
required the introduction of new words.
 Example: Congressional- congressman-
presidential- statehouse.
 Some archaic uses of words were kept.
 Example: mad- fall- sick- rare
Linguistic
distinctiveness
PronunciationVocabulary
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10. American English: Linguistic Distinctiveness
2- Pronunciation
 American English is old-fashioned
 It has qualities that were characteristic of
17th and 18th century English
 American English pronunciation is rhotic.
 It retains the flat (a) as in flat, path, grass,
dance, half
 Americans speak more slowly and with
less variety in the intonation.
Linguistic
distinctiveness
PronunciationVocabulary
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11. American English: National Consciousness
In 1781, John Witherspoon writes
in the Pennsylvania Journal:
“Being entirely separated
from Britain, we shall find
some centre or standard
of our own, and not be
subject to the inhabitants
of that island, either in
receiving new ways of
speaking or rejecting the
old”
Source: Cable, T., & Baugh, A. C. (1991). In A history
of the English language.
Prevalent political
ideologies
o A distaste for anything
that perpetuates the
former dependence
o Independence
necessitates separation
at the linguistic level.
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12. American English: National Consciousness
A number of notable political and intellectual figures made
strong claims about the need to promote American variety of
English.
John Adams (1735- 1826)
• He was insistent on setting up an academy to protect, refine
and develop a standard language capable to cope up with the
national challenges
Noah Webster (1757- 1848)
• In 1828, he published the first dictionary of American English.
• He stresses American usages and pronunciation.
• He adopts a series of distinctive spellings
• He makes illustrations using quotes from American literature.
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13. American English Spelling: Noah Webster
 Webster considers the alterations introduced to the
American ways of spelling as an event
“of vast political consequence. A national language is a band of national union.
Every engine should be employed to render the people of this country national,
to call their attachments home to their own country, and to inspire them with the
pride of national character.” Source: Cable, T., & Baugh, A. C. (1991). In A
history of the English language.
Change 1:
c k
Change 2
ou o
Change 3
er re
Change 4
que k
Change 5
ce se
musik: music
physical
Logic
honour: honor
favor
color
theatre
:theater
Center
meter
checque :
check
Risk
Mask
defence:
defense
Pretense
recompense
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14. Dominance of English
According to 2000 census, the total number of monolingual non-
English speakers is less than 5 million.
A. Explicit Schemes
1. English is the language of
schooling
2. It is the language of
courtrooms
3. It is required for federal
grant application
4. It is a specific requirement
for many jobs
B. Implicit Schemes
• Integration programs for
immigrants
• Assimilation schemes for
the indigenous population
• Sporadic punitive schemes
• Prominent Media sources in
English language
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15. 2- Native American Languages
Before colonial settlement
 250 American native
languages
 9 language families
 A great diversity between
languages
 A 20 Million population
Now
 8 American native languages
 Most of them are extinct
 Old speakers
 A 2 million population
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16. 3- Spanish
 It is English’s rival language.
 34 M. Hispanics in 2007.
 81% in the Midwest.
 Annexation of Louisiana in 1803
and Texas in 1823.
 The influx of Spanish speaking
immigrants after the second World
War .
 Most were Mexicans, and
Cubans.
 The most popular foreign language
at secondary school.
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17. 4- French
 13 M. Americans claim French
ancestry.
 Only 1.3 M of them speak French
at home.
 French was historically located in
Louisiana and Northern New
England.
 It is the most spoken language in
four states: Louisiana, Maine,
Vermont , New Hampshire.
 Two French varieties: Louisiana
Creole and French Cajun.
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18. 4- German
According to 2005 American
survey, 49 M American claim
that they had German
ancestry.
96% speak of them speak
English at home.
Only 1.38 M. Americans
speak German. Before
WWI, about 6 M. American
students were receiving their
schooling in German.
German is the most spoken
language in two states:
North Dakota and South
Dakota.
The Amish of Pennsylvania
are the prominent German
groups. They still live in
enclosed areas and in
isolation.
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19. Languages in the USA: Diversity or Uniformity?
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20. Monolingualism and Multilingualism in
the United States
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21. !- The Ideology of Monolingualism
 Joshua Fishman: “America, America: spendthrift and gravedigger in
the front of multilingualism”
 It is evident that the process of language shift has been a dominant
American experience since the early colonial times.
 Two generations are enough to wipe out non- English language
proficiency.
How have Americans become
monolingual English language
speakers?
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22. The ideology of English Monolingualism
 The English dominant groups in the USA have, throughout the
three centuries, identified four major arguments to justify the
ideology of English monolingualism.
Source: Heath, S. B., & Ferguson, C. A. (2004). In Language in the USA: Themes for
the 21st century.
Argument 1:
Immigration into the
USA= A privilege
Argument2:
Economic
improvement= No
linguistic minority rights
Argument 3:
Language
maintenance=
Self- imposed isolation
Argument 4
Diversity= a threat to
national unity
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23. A Variety of Policies
The attrition of American Multilingualism
has not preceded uniformly throughout
the past two centuries; it can not be
represented by a single, monotonic
downward line. Instead, the recurring rise
and fall of non- English languages in USA
reveal substantial variation over time in
both degree and role.
Source: Heath, S. B., & Ferguson, C. A. (2004). In Language in
the USA: Themes for the 21st century.
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24. 2- Types of Language Policies
Kloss (1977) developed a useful schema to
categorize various types of official language policies
and laws.
Promotion- oriented policies
Expediency- oriented policies
Tolerance- oriented policies
Restriction- oriented Policies
Repression- oriented policies
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25. English- Only Movement
 The current English –only movement has been triggered by
the large immigration movement of Hispanic population after
WWII.
 The 1970’s was characterised by tolerance- based policies
which culminated in the enactment of the federal act of
bilingual education.
 In 1981, Senator S. I. Hayakawa introduced a constitutional
amendment into the Senate that would make English
language the official language of the USA.
 He succeeded to found a high- profile organisation, “US
English” and raise huge funds to further its English- only
agenda25

26. English- Only Movement
 Within the first four years
of the establishment of
this organisation, 48
states contemplated
constitutional amendment
promoted by English-only
movement.
 23 states have adopted
the amendment and
declared English as an
official language in their
territories.
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27. English-Plus Movement
 A lot of criticism of English- only policies has come from leaders of
ethnic groups, minority- rights groups, immigrant groups and from
educational and professional organisations.
 Opponents of English- only movement formed “English-plus”
movement and advanced an alternative constitutional amendment
called the “Cultural Rights Amendment”.
 It encouraged cultural diversity and education in English as well as
education in secondary languages across the entire population, for
natives and immigrants alike.
 English- plus resolutions have been passed in the states of Oregon,
Washington, New Mexico and Rhode Island.
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28. Conclusion
We have room for but one
language in this country,
that is the English
language, for we intend to
see that the crucible turns
our people out as
Americans, of American
nationality, the single
greatest empowering tool
that immigrants must have.
Theodore Roosevelt
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29. References
• Cable, T., & Baugh, A. C. (1991). In A history of the English
language. Prentice-Hall International editions. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall International.
• González, R. D., & In Melis, I. (2000). Language ideologies: Critical
perspectives on the official English movement. Urbana, Ill: National
Council of Teachers of English.
• Heath, S. B., & Ferguson, C. A. (2004). In Language in the USA:
Themes for the 21st century. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Karavanta, M., Mitsikopoulou, B., & Dendrinos, B. (January 01,
2008). Introduction: Theorizing New English(es). European Journal
of English Studies, 12, 1, 1-14.
• Kloss, H. (1977). In The American bilingual tradition. Rowley, Mass:
Newbury House.
• http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_lang.html
• http://www.antimoon.com/how/pronunc-american-british.htm
• http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu/farg/rehling/nativeAm/ling.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org
• http://www.google.com/images
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