25. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
Unit Description
Bit (Binary Digit) Abinarydigit is logical 0 & 1 representing a passive oran active state ofa component in anelectric circuit.
Nibble Agroupof4 bitsis called nibble.
Byte Agroupof8 bitsis called byte. Abyte is the smallest unit which can represent a data item ora character.
Word
Acomputer wordlike a byte, is agroupoffixed number ofbits processed as a unit which varies from
computer but is fixed for each computer.
The length ofa computer wordis called word-size orwordlength andit may beas small as 8 bitsormay be as
long as 96 bits.
Acomputer stores the information in the form of the computer words.
49. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
Personal area network (PAN) : 20 to30 feet.
Local area network (LAN) : small commercial area orin small computer labs.
Metropolitan area network (MAN) : MANhas manyapplications ,it is most
commonly used in banks, onlinereservationsystems and in many military
basedservices.
Storage area network (SAN) : a dedicatednetwork that providesaccess to
consolidated, block level data storage.
Widearea network (WAN) : Widearea networkis commonly known as
internet.Theapplicationsandavailabilityofinternetcan be nowseenin every
buildingofcommercial or other nature.
Campus area network (CAN) …
65. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
2400 BC to 300 BC.(technology to support mathematics begins)
Thefirst knownportable calculatorwas theabacus.Some claim it originatedwiththeChinese, butmost
scholars arguethatit was inventedbythe Babylonians(Encyclopædia Britannica).The concept wasfirst
implemented withpebbles andsandor dust on arock, henceits origins inthePhoenician word abakor
sand.Of course if itwas awindyday, you couldn't calculatethebig figures. Asthetechnology of that
period improved, carryingabag of pebbles, waitingfor therightweather,thenfinding anice pile of dust
or sandand thenplacing a design on it was nolonger necessary.Theearly Roman abacus(picture) to the
rightcreateda permanent sandpile grid, theclaytablet.Thisdevelopment led to something betterto
deal withtheproblem of easy tolose anddisplace pebbles. Thistablettechnology wasimproved on by
puttingthepebbles on a stringor rod. Thisdesign puta number of thinkingfunctions into onehighly
portable device wheretheycould not get lost andmade iteasy toquickly move thingstothe beginning
of thesequence. This wasthefirst handheldcomputer. See thousandsof images of different abacus
models using Google image searchfor abacus or tryout asimulationof one design of anabacus.
80 BC: theAntikytheramechanism, designed byGreek engineers, wasthe firstknown functioning
analogcomputer thatperhaps calculatedthepositions of the starsandplanets(Google images)
1500s AD: Leonardo daVinci's designs aMechanicalCalculator(picture ; Google images)
1600s: JohnNapier createsNapiers Bones (multiplication tableson wood or paper) and logarithms.
(picture)
66. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
1621: William Oughtredinvents theslide rule,anearlyanalog computer (picture; Google images).
1642: BlaisePascal,a Frenchmathematicianand philosopher, inventsthefirst operatingmodel of
mechanicaldigital calculatorusing gears, called theArithmeticMachine.It usedaddition to subtract,
multiple anddivide (picture).
1665: Robert Hooke writesin Micrographiaof how our useof eye glassessuggests extensions for all
senses (technology conceived to support sense of sightextended to all senses)
1804: Joseph Marie Jacquardused punchcards toautomatea weaving loom (pictures; Google images).
1812: CharlesP. Babbage, the"fatherof the computer", discovered thatmanylong calculationsinvolved
many similar, repeatedoperations. Therefore, hedesigned a machine, thedifference enginewhich
wouldbe steam powered, fullyautomaticandcommanded bya fixed instructionprogram. In 1833,
Babbage quitworking on thismachine to concentrateon theanalyticalengine(picture; Google images).
1840s: AugustaAda is knownas"thefirst programmer" becauseshe suggestedthatabinarysystem
should be used for storageratherthana decimal systemfor Babbage's designs (Google images).
67. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
1850s: George Boole developed Boolean logic whichwouldlaterbecome significantto thedesign of
computer circuitryand asa method for refining thesearchingof information (Google images).
1874: first commercial typewriterwas releasedin 1874, havingbeen patentedin 1867 (Google images).
1890: Hollerith's tabulator
1890: Dr. Herman Hollerithintroduced thefirstelectromechanical,punched-carddata-processing
machinewhichwasused tocompile information for the 1890 U.S. census.Hollerith's tabulatorbecame
so successful thathestartedhisown business to marketit. Hiscompany wouldeventuallybecome
InternationalBusinessMachines(IBM). (picture ; Google images) (this paper basedmachinerepresents
theorigin of computer databasesoftware)
1906: Lee De Forestinvents thevacuumtube whichis usedas anearlyform of computer memory
holding thevaluesof zero andoneby being on or off (picture ; Google pictures).
1910: first commercial implementation of teletype or teleprinters,betweenNew York CityandBoston
(pictures; Google pictures)
1939: Dr. John V. Atanasoff andhis graduateassistantClifford Berrybuild thefirst electronicdigital
computer (Google images).
68. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
1940: The firstexample of remote computing, using a teleprinterto reachacrossa telephone lineto a
computer inNew Hampshirewhichreturnedanswersto New York. The teleprinteris not acomputer but
connectswithanddisplays interactionswiththe computer. (picture ; Google images).
1941: Konrad Zusefrom Germany, introducedthefirst programmable computer whichsolved complex
engineering equations.Thismachine, called theZ3, wasalso thefirst to work on thebinarysystem
insteadof thedecimal system. (Google images)
1947: The giantENIAC (Electrical Numerical IntegratorandCalculator)machinewas developed by John
W. Mauchlyand J. Presper Eckert, Jr. attheUniversityof Pennsylvania.It used 18,000 vacuum tubes,
punch-cardinput,weighed thirtytons andoccupied a thirty-by-fifty-footspace. It wasonly
programmable bychangingthewiring, notthroughsoftwarechanges,but wasproductive from 1946 to
1955 and wasused to compute artilleryfiring tables.(Google images)
1947: William Shockley, John BardeenandWalterBrattainof Bell Labsinventedthetransistor.In the
nextdecade, vacuum tubes will be replaced bytransistorsfor whichtheywillreceive theNobel Prize in
physics in 1956. (images ; Google images)
1951: Mauchlyand Eckertbuilt the UNIVAC I, thefirst computer designed andsold commercially,
specifically for business data-processingapplications (Google images).
1950s: Dr. GraceMurrayHopper developed theUNIVAC I compiler. (Google images)(computer
supports composition withtext)
69. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
1955 Hillerand Issacson compse the firstpiece of computer-generatedmusic
using the Univac computer, the Illiac StringQuartet(computer supports
composition withmusic).
1957: FORTRAN(FORmula TRANslator),an earlycomputer programming
language that wasthe firsttohandle loops, repeatingsets of computer
directions(computer supports complex composition withtext)
1958: Jack St. ClairKilbyand RobertNoyce ofTexas Instrumentsmanufactured
the firstintegratedcircuit, or chip, which is madeupof six components, a feat
for whichthey eventually wina Nobel Prizeforphysics in theyear 2000. This
led tohundredsof tinytransistors that fit on a chip ofsilicon, thenthousands,
then millionsoverthe nextdecade. (pictures ;picture2 ; Google images)
1960s: Gene Amdahl designedthe IBMSystem/360 seriesof mainframe(G)
computers, the firstgeneral-purposedigital computers to use integrated
circuits.(Google images)
70. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
1962: IvanSutherland produces softwarefor drawingand manipulatingimagesin
real-timecalledSketchpad (computersupportscomputerimagecomposition)
1964: IBM produces the MT/ST (the MagneticTape/SelectricTypewriter)(this
typewriterbecomes thefirstwordprocessor)
1965: BASIC(BeginnersAll-purposeSymbolicInstructionCode)programming
languagedevelopedby Dr.ThomasKurtz and Dr.John Kemeny. (Googleimages)
1960's late:ATM machinesintroduced, but only allowedcash withdrawal.(Google
images)
1967: A TexasInstrumentteamof engineerscreated the Cal-Tech,the firsthandheld
calculatordesign completedwhich ismarketedthreeyearslaterby Canon. TIbegins
to sellitsown4 function Datamathcalculatorin 1972 for $150.00. (pictures;Google
images)
1968: The movie2001: A SpaceOdysseyisreleased.(Googleimages)
71. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
1969: Amajorinternetisstartedas a U.S.government defenseagency, ARPANET,
needsto connect many machineson manysmallernetworks.(Googleimages)
1970: intelintroducesthe first1k dynamicRAMon a chip which quickly replaces
magneticcore memory.(Googleimages)
1971: Intelreleasedthe firstmicroprocessor,the 4004 (inventedby Ted Hoff) a
specializedintegratedcircuit chip which wasableto processfour bitsof data ata time
at 108 khz usingsome2000 transistors(see1958).Whatformerly requiredmany
computerchips withconnecting wiresfor the arithmetic,logic and control
components, wasnow on one chip, significantly reducingthe complexityand cost of
manufacturingthe heartof a computer. Storagefor data and programsremainson
other chips and devices.Eventually,almostevery device usingelectricitywillbe
controlledby a microprocessor.(picture; Googleimages)
1971: PASCAL,a structuredor modularprogramminglanguage,wasdevelopedby
NiklausWirth.(Googleimages)
72. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
1972: The firstgrocery storeused computer read bar code on products, a Kroger inCincinnati,Ohio.
(Google images)
1972: The AtariCompany invented thefirstcommercially successful coin-operatedvideo game called
"Pong" startingtheconcept of softwareassimulation andgame (Google images)
1973: TexasInstrumentsintroduces thefirst dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) thatis a 4K-bit
chip(Google images)
1973: The firstsophisticatedcomputer systems thatcould scanhumantissuewereinstalled at
MassachusettsGeneral andMayoClinic. Using x-rays,theprocess takes 4.5 minutes of scantime then
another20 minutes to process thecollected data.TheNobel Prize for thedevelopment of Computer
Assisted Tomography wasawardedto Cormackand Hounsfieldin 1979. (Google images)
1973: Classrooms begin using teletype terminals (e.g., keyboard types on paper) for instructional
purposes to interactwithremote computers using acousticcouplers (standardtelephone handsets
placed inanearly type of modem to send and receivedata),image courtesyof Grace Museum,
Universityof Missouri-St.Louis.
1974: Hewlett-Packardintroduces theHP-35, thefirst scientific handheldcalculator(Google images)
73. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
1974: Robert Moog inventedthe firstpractical electronic synthesizer and
introducedit tothe public in 1964. (Google images)1975: Two young hackers,
WilliamGatesandPaul Allenapproached MITSand promisedto delivera
BASICcompiler. So theydid and fromthe sale, Microsoft wasborn.
1976: Craydeveloped the Cray-Isupercomputer (Google images).
1976: JobsandWozniak designedandbuilt the Apple I; then the following year
introducedthe Apple IImicrocomputer duringa year inwhichmany other
personal computer brands are marketedincluding the Commodore Pet,
Tandy/Radio Shack TRS-80 Model I,Atariand Colecoand thenmore brands
appear inthe yearstofollow(Apple pictures ; other PCpictures).
1978: Arcadevideo game arrivescalled Space Invaders.
1979: Arcadevideo game by Ataricalled Asteroidswhichprovidedfastaction
and high score as challenge forothers tobeat.
74. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
1979:Visicalc (a spreadsheetprogram)is first soldforthe AppleIIcomputer (Google
images).(computer supportseasy mathematical problem solving)
1980:IBM offers Bill Gates theopportunitytodevelop theoperatingsystem called MS-DOS
forits newIBM personalcomputer (Google images).
1980:RadioShackintroduces the TRS-80 PocketComputer.Itfeaturesa 24characterdisplay,
QWERTY keyboard,and 1.9KB ofprogrammablememory.Priceis US$230.(Google images)
1981:The IBM PCwasintroducedwitha 16-bitmicroprocessor.(Google images)
1982:Time magazinechooses the computerinstead ofa person tobe its "Machineof the
Year."(Google images)
1982:CMX/Orroxshows a disc-basededitingsystem fordigitalvideo (computer supports
compositionwith video)
1982:The MIDI (Musical InstrumentDigital Interface)became a standardallowingdigital
electronic instruments toworkefficiently withcomputers. (Google images)
1982:first digitalaudioCDdiscs madeavailablein the 5-inch size (Google images).
75. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
1983:The Internetis born whenAdvanced ResearchProjectsAgencyNetwork(Arpanet)of theUSDepartmentof
Defenseswitched overto theTCP/IPprotocol from the NetworkControl Protocol(NCP) on January 1, 1983.The
ARPANET(forerunnerto today's Internet)whichwaslimited to just 1,000machinescould now handle millions.
Vinton Cerfand Robert Kahn designed the TCP/IPprotocol. (Googleimages)
1983:The movieWar Gamesis releasedin whicha seekerof networkcomputeraccessstumbles into playing a game
that becomesa realprelude to thermonuclearwar.(Google images)
1983:Aldus Corporationintroduces Pagemakersoftwarefor desktoppublishing(computer simplifiesthe mergingof
textand images,desktop publishing)
1984:Apple introduced theMacintosh computer, whichuses a graphicalinterface instead of theusual text
command interface,makingthe computer mucheasierto use.(Googleimages)
1984:The sameyear, IBM releasedthe 286-AT.(Google images)
1984:William Gibson authors thebook Neuromancerwhichcoins the termcyberspace.(Googleimages)
1984:SeikoInstrumentsU.S.A.Inc.displays the firstwristwatchcomputer, with a 10-character,4-lineLCD.
1987:Hypercarddistributed by Apple Computer,(the computer managesmultimedia, integration of many mediaon
one computer screen)
1988:A nondestructive worm wasintroduced into the Internetnetworkbringing thousands of computersto a halt.
76. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
1989:The Intel 486becamethe world'sfirst 1,000,000transistor microprocessor.(Google images)
1989:Virtual realitysoftwareappearsfrom Autodesk and VPL(personalcomputer supports 3 dimensional (3D)
displays of imagery)
By 1990,all knownforms of compositioncan be editedand displayed on one relativelyaffordable deviceand on
one screen,using thepersonalcomputer.
1992:Apple Computerchairman John Sculley coins the termPersonalDigital Assistant, referringto handheld
computersthat typically operatevia a stylus on a LCD display. Sculley announces that Apple Computerwillenterthe
consumerelectronicsmarketby the endof theyear.At the ConsumerElectronicsShow, Apple Computerannounces
the Newton peninput device.(Google images)
1992:The movieLawnmowerMan explorespossible socialconsequencesof virtual reality computing; Lawnmower
Man 2 (due 2003).
1994:Commercializationof the Internet.
1995:Colombia PicturesreleasedThe Net, whichexploredthe socialissuesof personalsecurityand privacy with
networkedcomputers.
1995:The Copycat movieexploredhow computers could be used to animate imagesand to transmit them.(Google
images)
1996:3Comdebuts the PalmPilot.
1996:first DVDplayersmade available
77. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
1997:Nokia introduces theNokia 9000iCommunicator, combining hand-held PC, digital cellphone, and fax: 4.5x
1.4inch LCD screen,QWERTYkeyboard, GeoWorksoperatingsystem,Intel 24-MHz386processor,and 8-MBRAM.
Priceis US$850-1000plus monthly cellphone charge;weightis 14ounces;size is6.5 x 2.5x 1.5inches.(Google
images)
1998:Microsoft announced the PalmPChand-held computer, running Windows CE 2.0.(Googleimages)
1998:Pople and Kohn wereawardedthe Nobel Prizein Chemistryin this year forshowing how to use computers to
usethe complexequations of quantum-chemicalmethodsto accurately determinethe three-dimensionalstructure
of molecules.Oneapplication of this is the developmentof newcatalysts to generatevery specificproducts such as
drugs and plastics. Future applications willinclude nanomachinesand nanocomputers (images).
1999:PalmComputing introduced the PalmVII ConnectedOrganizerhandheld computer: 2 MB RAM, and
telephonemodem port whichcan be connected to a separatecellphone. Priceis US$599;size is5.25x 3.25x 0.75
inches;weightis6.7 ounces.TwoAAA batteriespowertheunit for 2-3weeks.Connectivity via Palmfor emailand
Internetaccesscosts US$9.99for 50KBtransferredper month, or US$24.99for 150KB.(Google images)
1999:The movieTheMatrix is released,starringa big brother computer networkthat is controlling minds and the
world.(Google images)
2001:Apple's iPod, a digital pocketsized musicplayer is madeavailable. (Googleimages)
78. د.ياملصركمال–الحاسوب علوم في مقدمة–فلسطين غزة
2002:Crichton authors the book"Prey:A Novel"about a swarmsof nanocomputers (the sizeof molecules)
organizing to becomenew lifeforms, a workwhichspeculateson and explains the mergerof computer, nano, and
bio technologies, artificial life, and emergentbehavior. (Googleimages)
2003:Firstnanocomputer-DNAdevicedesigned to play tic-tac-toeand called MAYA; researchis underwayto make
nanocomputing possible through developingquantum replacementsfor the idea of the transistor (see 1947).
2004:Sony and IBM begin production of cellcomputer chips, a supercomputeron a chip designed to also be part of
teamsof chips
Otherdates being sought -
◦ Firstcollectionsofinexpensivepersonalcomputersusedtomakea supercomputer:clusterorarraycomputing.
◦ Firstall-in-onewirelesshandheldandfirstsmart-phone.
◦ Firstconsumersatellitedigitalaccessproducts,forradioandforInternetuse.
2005-06:theend of the digital divide is near;Nicholas Negroponteshowed prototypes of a $100laptop to
conferencesinthe fall of 2005;Quantra Corporationwon the bid to manufacture the deviceinJanuary 2006.Mass
production began, fall, 2007withinitial pricenear$200.First big orderto Peru, 272,000computers.January,2008,
Birmingham,Alabama signed agreementto buy 15,000(Googleimages).
2008:IBM announced theRoadrunner computer, June, 2008,had reached1 petaflop of computing speed(1,000
trillion calculations per second).