Psychological foundation of education

PSYCHOLOGICAL
FOUNDATIONS
OF EDUCATION

Held by Wilhelm Wundt and Titchener.
All consciousness of facts and
phenomena of experiences are based
upon the operation of the nervous system
particularly the brain. Then follows an
abstract analysis of the mental structures
that are operating.
STRUCTURALISM

William James is the main
proponent.
Mental process should be
regarded as functions or
operations of the organism in its
adaptation to and modification of
the environment
FUNCTIONALISM

 Definition: School of psychology that studies only
observable and measurable behavior.
 John Watson:
 You cannot define conscious any more than you can define a soul.
 You cannot locate or measure consciousness, and therefore it cannot be
the object of scientific study.
 Studies observable, measurable behavior and nothing more.
 Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
 Watson’s Experiment with Little Albert and the white rats (happy 11
month old conditioned to be afraid of white rats)
 Mary Cover Jones (1924) eliminating fears through conditioning (Peter
Experiment)
BEHAVIORISM

 Definition: School of Psychology that studies
how people perceive and experience objects as
whole patterns
 Short lived—people didn’t really see its
potential.
 Approaches structuralism from a different
angle. Example: When we see a tree, we see just
that, a tree, not a series of branches.
 Founded by Max Wertheimer
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

 The basic tenets of psychoanalysis include the following:
 Human behavior, experience, and cognition are largely determined by irrational
drives;
 Those drives are largely unconscious;
 Attempts to bring those drives into awareness meet psychological resistance in the
form of defense mechanisms;
 Beside the inherited constitution of personality, one's development is determined
by events in early childhood;
 Conflicts between conscious view of reality and unconscious (repressed) material
can result in mental disturbances such as neurosis, neurotic traits, anxiety,
depression etc.;
 The liberation from the effects of the unconscious material is achieved through
bringing this material into the consciousness (via e.g. skilled guidance).[1]
 Conceived by Sigmund Freud
PSYCHOANALYSIS

THE ECLECTIC FACTORS
ASSOCIATED WITH THE
MENTAL AND BEHAVIORAL
DEVELOPMENT

These are inborn automatic
responses to simple
localized stimulation
involving particular muscles
and parts of the body.
REFLEXES

 These are inborn urges and tendencies and
wants
 Creates tensions in the individual
 Determines the actions and reactions of an
individual towards certain situation.
 Gives rise to ambitions which motivate
individuals to exert efforts to attain their
goals.
DRIVES, NEEDS,
WANTS, URGES

Includes all those latent
potentialities that an
individual possesses which
are developed through the
process of education.
CAPACITIES AND
SPECIAL APTITUDES

Refers to certain emotional
predispositions of an
individual.
TEMPERAMENT OR EMOTION

 Growth – is a change in a particular phase of
the organism
 Development – is series of a number of related
and continuous change in a system, extending
over a considerable time; especially enduring
and sustaining particular changes in an
organism from its origin to maturity and death.
 Growth – increase in size and weight
 Development – progressive changes
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

 All human beings pass through a series of
psychosexual stages. Each stage is dominated by the
development of sensitivity in a particular erogenous
zone of the body. Every stage assumes a particular
conflict from the individual that must be reserved
before going to the next higher stage. Individuals
who enjoy the pleasure of a given stage, might not be
willing to move on the later stage. Individuals
experience fixation at a certain period of
development.
FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC
THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Oral stage – birth to one year
Infant’s gratification for mother. Eating is the
main source of satisfaction
2. Anal stage – one to three years
Toilet training
3. Phallic stage – three to six years
Pleasure from the sex organs
4. Latency period – six years to adolescence
Children turn their attention to people outside
their families
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

5. Genital stage – adolescence and beyond
masturbation of the sex organs, sex hormones
production, reactivation of the genital zones (sensual
pleasure), looking for future partner, prepares for
marriage and adult responsibility
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

 Erikson's stages of psychosocial development as
articulated by Erik Erikson explain eight stages
through which a healthily developing human should
pass from infancy to late adulthood. In each stage the
person confronts, and hopefully masters, new
challenges.
 Each stage builds on the successful completion of
earlier stages. The challenges of stages not
successfully completed may be expected to reappear
as problems in the future.
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL
THEORY

 However, mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the
next stage. Erikson's stage theory characterizes an individual
advancing through the eight life stages as a function of
negotiating his or her biological forces and sociocultural
forces. Each stage is characterized by a psycho social crisis of
these two conflicting forces (as shown in the table below). If
an individual does indeed successfully reconcile these forces
(favoring the first mentioned attribute in the crisis), he or she
emerges from the stage with the corresponding virtue. For
example, if an infant enters into the toddler stage (autonomy
vs. shame & doubt) with more trust than mistrust, he or she
carries the virtue of hope into the remaining life stages.[1]
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL
THEORY

 Existential Question: Can I Trust the World?
 The first stage of Erik Erikson's theory centers around the infant's basic
needs being met by the parents and this interaction leading to trust or
mistrust. Trust as defined by Erikson is "an essential truthfulness of others
as well as a fundamental sense of one's own trustworthiness."[4] The infant
depends on the parents, especially the mother, for sustenance and comfort.
The child's relative understanding of world and society come from the
parents and their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the child
to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant's view of the
world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure
environment and to meet the child's basic needs a sense of mistrust will
result.[5] Development of mistrust can lead to feelings of frustration,
suspicion, withdrawal, and a lack of confidence. [4]
Hopes: Trust vs. Mistrust
(Oral-sensory, Birth-2 years)

 According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in
infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially
primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers
are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an
infant learns trust- that others are dependable and reliable. If
they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant
instead learns mistrust- that the world is in an undependable,
unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place. While negative,
having some experience with mistrust allows the infant to
gain an understanding of what constitutes dangerous
situations later in life.[5]
Hopes: Trust vs. Mistrust
(Oral-sensory, Birth-2 years)

 Existential Question: Is It OK to Be Me?
 As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor
abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings. The parents
still provide a strong base of security from which the child can
venture out to assert their will. The parents' patience and
encouragement helps foster autonomy in the child. Children at
this age like to explore the world around them and they are
constantly learning about their environment. Caution must be
taken at this age while children may explore things that are
dangerous to their health and safety.
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
(Muscular-Anal, 2-4 years)

 At this age, children develop their first interests. For
example, a child who enjoys music may like to play
with the radio. Children who enjoy the outdoors may
be interested in animals and plants. Highly restrictive
parents, however, are more likely to instill in the child
a sense of doubt, and reluctance to attempt new
challenges. As they gain increased muscular
coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable
of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to
feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use
the bathroom.
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
(Muscular-Anal, 2-4 years)

 Existential Question: Is it OK for Me to Do, Move, and Act?
 Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking,
planning and attacking a task for the sake of just being active
and on the move. The child is learning to master the world
around them, learning basic skills and principles of physics.
Things fall down, not up. Round things roll. They learn how to
zip and tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage, the child
wants to begin and complete their own actions for a purpose.
Guilt is a confusing new emotion. They may feel guilty over
things that logically should not cause guilt. They may feel guilt
when this initiative does not produce desired results.
Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt
(Locomotor-Genital, Preschool, 4-5 years)

 The development of courage and independence are what set
preschoolers, ages three to six years of age, apart from other
age groups. Young children in this category face the challenge
of initiative versus guilt. As described in Bee and Boyd
(2004),[5] the child during this stage faces the complexities of
planning and developing a sense of judgment. During this
stage, the child learns to take initiative and prepare for
leadership and goal achievement roles. Activities sought out
by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such
as crossing a street alone or riding a bike without a helmet;
both these examples involve self-limits.

 Within instances requiring initiative, the child
may also develop negative behaviors. These
behaviors are a result of the child developing a
sense of frustration for not being able to
achieve a goal as planned and may engage in
behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and
overly assertive to parents. Aggressive
behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or
yelling, are examples of observable behaviors
during this stage. **

 Preschoolers are increasingly able to accomplish tasks on their
own, and can start new things. With this growing
independence comes many choices about activities to be
pursued. Sometimes children take on projects they can readily
accomplish, but at other times they undertake projects that
are beyond their capabilities or that interfere with other
people's plans and activities. If parents and preschool teachers
encourage and support children's efforts, while also helping
them make realistic and appropriate choices, children develop
initiative- independence in planning and undertaking activities.
But if, instead, adults discourage the pursuit of independent
activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children
develop guilt about their needs and desires.[6]

 Existential Question: Can I Make it in the World of
People and Things?
 The aim to bring a productive situation to completion
gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play.
The fundamentals of technology are developed. To
lose the hope of such "industrious" association may
pull the child back to the more isolated, less
conscious familial rivalry of the Oedipal time.
Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority
(Latency, 5-12 years)

 "Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as
individuals." They work hard at "being responsible, being good and doing it
right." They are now more reasonable to share and cooperate. Allen and
Marotz (2003) [7] also list some perceptual cognitive developmental traits
specific for this age group. Children grasp the concepts of space and time in
more logical, practical ways. They gain a better understanding of cause and
effect, and of calendar time. At this stage, children are eager to learn and
accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also
get to form moral values, recognize cultural and individual differences and
are able to manage most of their personal needs and grooming with
minimal assistance.[7] At this stage, children might express their
independence by talking back and being disobedient and rebellious.

 Erikson viewed the elementary school years as critical for the
development of self-confidence. Ideally, elementary school
provides many opportunities for children to achieve the
recognition of teachers, parents and peers by producing
things- drawing pictures, solving addition problems, writing
sentences, and so on. If children are encouraged to make and
do things and are then praised for their accomplishments, they
begin to demonstrate industry by being diligent, persevering
at tasks until completed, and putting work before pleasure. If
children are instead ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if
they find they are incapable of meeting their teachers' and
parents' expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority
about their capabilities.[1]

 At this age, children start recognizing their special
talents and continue to discover interests as their
education improves. They may begin to choose to do
more activities to pursue that interest, such as joining
a sport if they know they have athletic ability, or
joining the band if they are good at music. If not
allowed to discover own talents in their own time,
they will develop a sense of lack of motivation, low
self esteem, and lethargy. They may become "couch
potatoes" if they are not allowed to develop
interests.

 Existential Question: Who Am I and What Can I Be?
 The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others.
Superego identity is the accrued confidence that the outer sameness and
continuity prepared in the future are matched by the sameness and
continuity of one's meaning for oneself, as evidenced in the promise of a
career. The ability to settle on a school or occupational identity is pleasant.
In later stages of Adolescence, the child develops a sense of sexual identity.
As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents
ponder the roles they will play in the adult world. Initially, they are apt to
experience some role confusion—mixed ideas and feelings about the
specific ways in which they will fit into society—and may experiment with
a variety of behaviors and activities (e.g. tinkering with cars, baby-sitting
for neighbors, affiliating with certain political or religious groups).
Eventually, Erikson proposed, most adolescents achieve a sense of identity
regarding who they are and where their lives are headed.
Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion
(Adolescence, 13-19 years)

 Erikson is credited with coining the term "Identity Crisis."[8] Each stage that came
before and that follows has its own 'crisis', but even more so now, for this marks the
transition from childhood to adulthood. This passage is necessary because
"Throughout infancy and childhood, a person forms many identifications. But the
need for identity in youth is not met by these."[9] This turning point in human
development seems to be the reconciliation between 'the person one has come to
be' and 'the person society expects one to become'. This emerging sense of self will
be established by 'forging' past experiences with anticipations of the future. In
relation to the eight life stages as a whole, the fifth stage corresponds to the
crossroads:
 What is unique about the stage of Identity is that it is a special sort of synthesis of
earlier stages and a special sort of anticipation of later ones. Youth has a certain
unique quality in a person's life; it is a bridge between childhood and adulthood.
Youth is a time of radical change—the great body changes accompanying puberty,
the ability of the mind to search one's own intentions and the intentions of others,
the suddenly sharpened awareness of the roles society has offered for later life.[8]

 Adolescents "are confronted by the need to re-establish [boundaries] for
themselves and to do this in the face of an often potentially hostile
world."[10] This is often challenging since commitments are being asked for
before particular identity roles have formed. At this point, one is in a state
of 'identity confusion', but society normally makes allowances for youth to
"find themselves," and this state is called 'the moratorium':
 The problem of adolescence is one of role confusion—a reluctance to
commit which may haunt a person into his mature years. Given the right
conditions—and Erikson believes these are essentially having enough space
and time, a psychosocial moratorium, when a person can freely experiment
and explore—what may emerge is a firm sense of identity, an emotional
and deep awareness of who he or she is.[10]

 As in other stages, bio-psycho-social forces are at work. No matter how one
has been raised, one’s personal ideologies are now chosen for oneself.
Oftentimes, this leads to conflict with adults over religious and political
orientations. Another area where teenagers are deciding for themselves is
their career choice, and oftentimes parents want to have a decisive say in
that role. If society is too insistent, the teenager will acquiesce to external
wishes, effectively forcing him or her to ‘foreclose’ on experimentation
and, therefore, true self-discovery. Once someone settles on a worldview
and vocation, will he or she be able to integrate this aspect of self-
definition into a diverse society? According to Erikson, when an adolescent
has balanced both perspectives of “What have I got?” and “What am I
going to do with it?” he or she has established their identity:[8]
 Dependent on this stage is the ego quality of fidelity—the ability to sustain
loyalties freely pledged in spite of the inevitable contradictions and
confusions of value systems. (Italics in original)[10]

 Given that the next stage (Intimacy) is often characterized by marriage,
many are tempted to cap off the fifth stage at 20 years of age. However,
these age ranges are actually quite fluid, especially for the achievement of
identity, since it may take many years to become grounded, to identify the
object of one's fidelity, to feel that one has "come of age." In the
biographies Young Man Luther and Gandhi's Truth, Erikson determined that
their crises ended at ages 25 and 30, respectively:
 Erikson does note that the time of Identity crisis for persons of genius is
frequently prolonged. He further notes that in our industrial society,
identity formation tends to be long, because it takes us so long to gain the
skills needed for adulthood’s tasks in our technological world. So… we do
not have an exact time span in which to find ourselves. It doesn't happen
automatically at eighteen or at twenty-one. A very approximate rule of
thumb for our society would put the end somewhere in one's twenties.[8]

 Existential Question: Can I Love?
 The Intimacy vs. Isolation conflict is emphasized around the age of 30. At
the start of this stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end,
though it still lingers at the foundation of the stage (Erikson, 1950). Young
adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit
in. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. We are
afraid of rejections such as being turned down or our partners breaking up
with us. We are familiar with pain, and to some of us, rejection is painful;
our egos cannot bear the pain. Erikson also argues that "Intimacy has a
counterpart: Distantiation: the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to
destroy those forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to our
own, and whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of one's
intimate relations" (1950).[11][12]
Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation
(Young adulthood, 20-24, or 20-40 years)

 Once people have established their identities,
they are ready to make long-term
commitments to others. They become capable
of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships
(e.g. through close friendships or marriage)
and willingly make the sacrifices and
compromises that such relationships require. If
people cannot form these intimate
relationships – perhaps because of their own
needs – a sense of isolation may result.
Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation
(Young adulthood, 20-24, or 20-40 years)

 Existential Question: Can I Make My Life Count?
 Generativity is the concern of guiding the next
generation. Socially-valued work and disciplines are
expressions of generativity. Simply having or wanting
children does not in and of itself achieve generativity.
 The adult stage of generativity has broad application
to family, relationships, work, and society.
“Generativity, then is primarily the concern in
establishing and guiding the next generation...the
concept is meant to include...productivity and
creativity”
Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation
(Middle adulthood, 25-64, or 40-64 years)

 During middle age the primary developmental task is
one of contributing to society and helping to guide
future generations. When a person makes a
contribution during this period, perhaps by raising a
family or working toward the betterment of society, a
sense of generativity- a sense of productivity and
accomplishment- results. In contrast, a person who is
self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society
move forward develops a feeling of stagnation- a
dissatisfaction with the relative lack of productivity.
Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation
(Middle adulthood, 25-64, or 40-64 years)

 Express love through more than sexual contacts.
 Maintain healthy life patterns.
 Develop a sense of unity with mate.
 Help growing and grown children to be responsible adults.
 Relinquish central role in lives of grown children.
 Accept children's mates and friends.
 Create a comfortable home.
 Be proud of accomplishments of self and mate/spouse.
 Reverse roles with aging parents.
 Achieve mature, civic and social responsibility.
 Adjust to physical changes of middle age.
 Use leisure time creatively.
Central tasks of middle adulthood

 Existential Question: Is it OK to Have Been Me?
 As we grow older and become senior citizens we tend
to slow down our productivity and explore life as a
retired person. It is during this time that we
contemplate our accomplishments and are able to
develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a
successful life. If we see our life as unproductive, or
feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we
become dissatisfied with life and develop despair,
often leading to depression and hopelessness.
Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
(Late adulthood, 65-death)

 The final developmental task is retrospection: people
look back on their lives and accomplishments. They
develop feelings of contentment and integrity if they
believe that they have led a happy, productive life.
They may instead develop a sense of despair if they
look back on a life of disappointments and
unachieved goals.
 This stage can occur out of the sequence when an
individual feels they are near the end of their life
(such as when receiving a terminal disease diagnosis).
Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
(Late adulthood, 65-death)

 Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive
theory about the nature and development of human
intelligence first developed by Jean Piaget. It is primarily
known as a developmental stage theory, but in fact, it deals
with the nature of knowledge itself and how humans come
gradually to acquire, construct, and use it. Moreover, Piaget
claims the idea that cognitive development is at the centre of
human organism and language is contingent on cognitive
development. Below, there is first a short description of
Piaget's views about the nature of intelligence and then a
description of the stages through which it develops until
maturity.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY

 Piaget believed that reality is a dynamic system of continuous change, and as such is
defined in reference to the two conditions that define dynamic systems. Specifically,
he argued that reality involves transformations and states. Transformations refer to
all manners of changes that a thing or person can undergo. States refer to the
conditions or the appearances in which things or persons can be found between
transformations. For example, there might be changes in shape or form (for
instance, liquids are reshaped as they are transferred from one vessel to another,
humans change in their characteristics as they grow older), in size (e.g., a series of
coins on a table might be placed close to each other or far apart) in placement or
location in space and time (e.g., various objects or persons might be found at one
place at one time and at a different place at another time). Thus, Piaget argued, that
if human intelligence is to be adaptive, it must have functions to represent both the
transformational and the static aspects of reality. He proposed that operative
intelligence is responsible for the representation and manipulation of the dynamic
or transformational aspects of reality and that figurative intelligence is responsible
for the representation of the static aspects of reality.[1]

 Operative intelligence is the active aspect of intelligence. It involves all actions, overt
or covert, undertaken in order to follow, recover, or anticipate the transformations of
the objects or persons of interest. Figurative intelligence is the more or less static
aspect of intelligence, involving all means of representation used to retain in mind
the states (i.e., successive forms, shapes, or locations) that intervene between
transformations. That is, it involves perception, imitation, mental imagery, drawing,
and language. Therefore, the figurative aspects of intelligence derive their meaning
from the operative aspects of intelligence, because states cannot exist independently
of the transformations that interconnect them. Piaget believed that the figurative or
the representational aspects of intelligence are subservient to its operative and
dynamic aspects, and therefore, that understanding essentially derives from the
operative aspect of intelligence.
 At any time, operative intelligence frames how the world is understood and it
changes if understanding is not successful. Piaget believed that this process of
understanding and change involves two basic functions: Assimilation and
accommodation.

 Assimilation and accommodation
 Through studying the field of education Piaget focused on
accommodation and assimilation. Assimilation, one of two
processes coined by Jean Piaget, describes how humans
perceive and adapt to new information. It is the process of
taking one’s environment and new information and fitting it
into pre-existing cognitive schemas. Assimilation occurs when
humans are faced with new or unfamiliar information and
refer to previously learned information in order to make sense
of it. Accommodation, unlike assimilation is the process of
taking one's environment and new information, and altering
one's pre-existing schemas in order to fit in the new
information.

 Through a series of stages, Piaget explains the ways in which
characteristics are constructed that lead to specific types of
thinking; this chart is called Cognitive Development. To Piaget,
assimilation is integrating external elements into structures of lives
or environments or those we could have through experience. It is
through assimilation that accommodation is derived.
Accommodation is imperative because it is how people will continue
to interpret new concepts, schemas, frameworks, etc.[2] Assimilation
is different from accommodation because of how it relates to the
inner organism due to the environment. Piaget believes that the
human brain has been programmed through evolution to bring
equilibrium, and to move upwards in a process to equilibriate what
is not. The equilibrium is what Piaget believes ultimately influences
structures because of the internal and external processes through
assimilation and accommodation.

 Piaget's understanding is that these two functions cannot
exist without the other. To assimilate an object into an existing
mental schema, one first needs to take into account or
accommodate to the particularities of this object to a certain
extent; for instance, to recognize (assimilate) an apple as an
apple one needs first to focus (accommodate) on the contour
of this object. To do this one needs to roughly recognize the
size of the object. Development increases the balance or
equilibration between these two functions. When in balance
with each other, assimilation and accommodation generate
mental schemas of the operative intelligence. When one
function dominates over the other, they generate
representations which belong to figurative intelligence.

 The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages in
cognitive development which "extends from birth to the
acquisition of language".[3] "In this stage, infants construct an
understanding of the world by coordinating experiences (such
as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions. Infants
gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they
perform on it. An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual
action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward
the end of the stage. Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage
into six sub-stages"[4]:0–2 years, Infants just have senses-
vision, hearing, and motor skills, such as grasping, sucking, and
stepping.---from Psychology Study Guide by Bernstein, Penner,
Clarke-Stewart, Roy

 The first stage is called the Sensorimotor stage (birth to about
age 2). In this stage knowledge of the world is limited (but
developing) because it’s based on physical
interactions/experiences. The child learns that he is separate
from his environment and that aspects of his environment
continue to exist even though they may be outside the reach
of his senses. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses
caused by sensory stimuli. In this stage according to Piaget,
the development of object permanence is one of the most
important accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage.
(Object permanence is a child’s understanding that objects
continue to exist even though they cannot be seen or heard).

 By the end of the sensorimotor period, objects are
both separate from the self and permanent. Object
permanence is the understanding that objects
continue to exist even when they cannot be seen,
heard, or touched. Acquiring the sense of object
permanence is one of the infant's most important
accomplishments, according to Piaget.[4]

Preoperational stage
The Cognitive Development Approaches.
By observing sequences of play, Jean
Piaget was able to demonstrate that
towards the end of the second year, a
qualitatively new kind of psychological
functioning occurs.[6]

 (Pre)Operatory Thought is any procedure for mentally acting
on objects. The hallmark of the preoperational stage is sparse
and logically inadequate mental operations. During this stage,
the child learns to use and to represent objects by images,
words, and drawings.The child is able to form stable concepts
as well as mental reasoning and magical beliefs. The child
however is still not able to perform operations; tasks that the
child can do mentally rather than physically. Thinking is still
egocentric. The child has difficulty taking the viewpoint of
others. Two substages can be formed from preoperative
thought.[6]

 The Symbolic Function Substage
 Occurs between about the ages of 2 and 7. At 2-4 years of age, kids cannot
yet manipulate and transform information in logical ways, but they now
can think in images and symbols. The child is able to formulate designs of
objects that are not present. Other examples of mental abilities are
language and pretend play. Although there is an advance in progress, there
are still limitations such as egocentrism and animism. Egocentrism occurs
when a child is unable to distinguish between their own perspective and
that of another person's. Children tend to pick their own view of what they
see rather than the actual view shown to others. An example is an
experiment performed by Piaget and Barbel Inhelder. Three views of a
mountain are shown and the child is asked what a traveling doll would see
at the various angles; the child picks their own view compared to the actual
view of the doll. Animism is the belief that inanimate objects are capable of
actions and have lifelike qualities. An example is a child believing that the
sidewalk was mad and made them fall down.[6]

 The Intuitive Thought Substage
 Occurs between about the ages of 4 and 7. Children tend to become very curious
and ask many questions; begin the use of primitive reasoning. There is an
emergence in the interest of reasoning and wanting to know why things are the
way they are. Piaget called it the intuitive substage because children realize they
have a vast amount of knowledge but they are unaware of how they know
it.'Centration' and 'conservation' are both involved in preoperative thought.
Centration is the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic compared to the
others. Centration is noticed in conservation; the awareness that altering a
substance's appearance does not change its basic properties. Children at this stage
are unaware of conservation.Example, In Piaget's most famous task, a child is
presented with two identical beakers containing the same amount of liquid. The
child usually notes that the beakers have the same amount of liquid.When one of
the beakers is poured into a taller and thinner container, children who are younger
than 7 or 8 years old typically say that the two beakers no longer contain the same
amount of liquid, and the taller container holds the larger quantity. The child simply
focuses on the height and width of the container compared to the general
concept.[6]

Concrete operational stage
The concrete operational stage is the
third of four stages of cognitive
development in Piaget's theory. This
stage, which follows the preoperational
stage, occurs between the ages of 7 and
11 years[7] and is characterized by the
appropriate use of logic. Important
processes during this stage are:

Seriation—the ability to sort objects in an
order according to size, shape, or any
other characteristic. For example, if given
different-shaded objects they may make a
color gradient.

Transitivity- Transitivity, which refers to
the ability to recognize relationships
among various things in a serial order. For
example, when told to put away his books
according to height, the child recognizes
that he starts with placing the tallest one
on one end of the bookshelf and the
shortest one ends up at the other end.

Classification—the ability to name and
identify sets of objects according to
appearance, size or other characteristic,
including the idea that one set of objects
can include another.

Decentering—where the child takes into
account multiple aspects of a problem to
solve it. For example, the child will no
longer perceive an exceptionally wide but
short cup to contain less than a normally
wide, taller cup.

Conservation—understanding that
quantity, length or number of items is
unrelated to the arrangement or
appearance of the object or items.

 Elimination of Egocentrism—the ability to view
things from another's perspective (even if they
think incorrectly). For instance, show a child a
comic in which Jane puts a doll under a box,
leaves the room, and then Melissa moves the
doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A child
in the concrete operations stage will say that
Jane will still think it's under the box even
though the child knows it is in the drawer. (See
also False-belief task)..

Children in this stage can,
however, only solve problems
that apply to actual (concrete)
objects or events, and not
abstract concepts or
hypothetical tasks.

 The third stage is known as Concrete operational stage (First grade to early adolescence): Intelligence is
demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. The
child develops an ability to think abstractly and to make rational judgements about concrete or observable
phenomena, which in the past he needed to manipulate physically to understand. Logic: Piaget determined
that children in the concrete operational stage were able to incorporate inductive logic. On the other hand,
children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to predict
the outcome of a specific event. Reversibility: An example of this is being able to reverse the order of
relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her
dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal, and draw conclusions from the
information available, as well as apply all these processes to hypothetical situations.[8] The abstract quality
of the adolescent's thought at the formal operational level is evident in the adolescent's verbal problem
solving ability.[8] The logical quality of the adolescent's thought is when children are more likely to solve
problems in a trial-and-error fashion.[8] Adolescents begin to think more as a scientist thinks, devising plans
to solve problems and systematically testing solutions.[8] They use hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which
means that they develop hypotheses or best guesses, and systematically deduce, or conclude, which is the
best path to follow in solving the problem.[8] During this stage the adolescent is able to understand such
things as love, "shades of gray", logical proofs and values. During this stage the young person begins to
entertain possibilities for the future and is fascinated with what they can be.[8] Adolescents are changing
cognitively also by the way that they think about social matters.[8] Adolescent Egocentrism governs the way
that adolescents think about social matters and is the heightened self-consciousness in them as they are
which is reflected in their sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility.[8] Adolescent egocentrism can be
dissected into two types of social thinking, imaginary audience that involves attention getting behavior, and
personal fable which involves an adolescent's sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility.[8]

 Formal operational stage
 The final stage is known as Formal operational stage (adolescence and into
adulthood): Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of
symbols related to abstract concepts. At this point, the person is capable of
hypothetical and deductive reasoning. During this time, people develop the
ability to think about abstract concepts. Logic: Piaget believed that
deductive logic becomes important during the formal operational stage.
This type of thinking involves hypothetical situations and is often required
in science and mathematics. Abstract thought emerges during the formal
operational stage. Children tend to think very concretely and specifically in
earlier stages. Children begin to consider possible outcomes and
consequences of actions. Problem-Solving is when children use trial-and-
error to solve problems. The ability to systematically solve a problem in a
logical and methodical way emerges.

 The stages and causation
 Piaget sees children’s conception of causation as a march from "primitive" conceptions of
cause to those of a more scientific, rigorous, and mechanical nature. These primitive concepts
are characterized as magical, with a decidedly nonnatural or nonmechanical tone. Piaget
attributes this to his most basic assumption: that babies are phenomenists. That is, their
knowledge "consists of assimilating things to schemas" from their own action such that they
appear, from the child’s point of view, "to have qualities which in fact stem from the
organism." Consequently, these "subjective conceptions," so prevalent during Piaget’s first
stage of development, are dashed upon discovering deeper empirical truths. Piaget gives the
example of a child believing the moon and stars follow him on a night walk; upon learning
that such is the case for his friends, he must separate his self from the object, resulting in a
theory that the moon is immobile, or moves independently of other agents. The second stage,
from around three to eight years of age, is characterized by a mix of this type of magical,
animistic, or “nonnatural” conceptions of causation and mechanical or "naturalisitic"
causation. This conjunction of natural and nonnatural causal explanations supposedly stems
from experience itself, though Piaget does not make much of an attempt to describe the
nature of the differences in conception; in his interviews with children, he asked specifically
about natural phenomena: what makes clouds move? What makes the stars move? Why do
rivers flow? The nature of all the answers given, Piaget says, are such that these objects must
perform their actions to "fulfill their obligations towards men." He calls this "moral
explanation."[9]

Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral
development constitute an adaptation of
a psychological theory originally
conceived of by the Swiss psychologist
Jean Piaget. Kohlberg began work on this
topic while a psychology postgraduate
student at the University of Chicago[1] in
1958, and expanded and developed this
theory throughout his life.
KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF
DEVELOPMENT

 The theory holds that moral reasoning, the basis for ethical
behavior, has six identifiable developmental stages, each more
adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than its
predecessor.[2] Kohlberg followed the development of moral
judgment far beyond the ages studied earlier by Piaget,[3] who
also claimed that logic and morality develop through
constructive stages.[2] Expanding on Piaget's work, Kohlberg
determined that the process of moral development was
principally concerned with justice, and that it continued
throughout the individual's lifetime,[4] a notion that spawned
dialogue on the philosophical implications of such
research.[5][6]
DEVELOPMENT

 Kohlberg's six stages can be more generally grouped
into three levels of two stages each: pre-
conventional, conventional and post-
conventional.[7][8][9] Following Piaget's constructivist
requirements for a stage model, as described in his
theory of cognitive development, it is extremely rare
to regress in stages—to lose the use of higher stage
abilities.[14][15] Stages cannot be skipped; each
provides a new and necessary perspective, more
comprehensive and differentiated than its
predecessors but integrated with them.[14][15]
DEVELOPMENT

 Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
 1. Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I
avoid punishment?)
 2. Self-interest orientation (What's in it for me?)
(Paying for a benefit)
 Level 2 (Conventional)
 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social
norms) (The good boy/good girl attitude)
 4. Authority and social-order maintaining
orientation (Law and order morality)
DEVELOPMENT

 Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
 5. Social contract orientation
 6. Universal ethical principles (Principled
conscience)
The understanding gained in each stage is
retained in later stages, but may be regarded by
those in later stages as simplistic, lacking in sufficient
attention to detail.
DEVELOPMENT

 Pre-conventional
 The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially
common in children, although adults can also exhibit this level
of reasoning. Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an
action by its direct consequences. The pre-conventional level
consists of the first and second stages of moral development,
and is solely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner.
A child with preconventional morality has not yet adopted or
internalized society's conventions regarding what is right or
wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences
that certain actions may bring.[7][8][9]
DEVELOPMENT

 In Stage one (obedience and punishment driven), individuals
focus on the direct consequences of their actions on
themselves. For example, an action is perceived as morally
wrong because the perpetrator is punished. "The last time I
did that I got spanked so I will not do it again." The worse the
punishment for the act is, the more "bad" the act is perceived
to be.[16] This can give rise to an inference that even innocent
victims are guilty in proportion to their suffering. It is
"egocentric", lacking recognition that others' points of view
are different from one's own.[17] There is "deference to
superior power or prestige".[17]
DEVELOPMENT

 Stage two (self-interest driven) espouses the "what's in it for
me" position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever is
in the individual's best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a
limited interest in the needs of others, but only to a point
where it might further the individual's own interests. As a
result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic
respect, but rather a "You scratch my back, and I'll scratch
yours." mentality.[2] The lack of a societal perspective in the
pre-conventional level is quite different from the social
contract (stage five), as all actions have the purpose of serving
the individual's own needs or interests. For the stage two
theorist, the world's perspective is often seen as morally
relative.
DEVELOPMENT

 Conventional
 The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of
adolescents and adults. Those who reason in a conventional
way judge the morality of actions by comparing them to
society's views and expectations. The conventional level
consists of the third and fourth stages of moral development.
Conventional morality is characterized by an acceptance of
society's conventions concerning right and wrong. At this level
an individual obeys rules and follows society's norms even
when there are no consequences for obedience or
disobedience. Adherence to rules and conventions is
somewhat rigid, however, and a rule's appropriateness or
fairness is seldom questioned.[7][8][9]
DEVELOPMENT

 In Stage three (interpersonal accord and conformity driven), the self
enters society by filling social roles. Individuals are receptive to
approval or disapproval from others as it reflects society's
accordance with the perceived role. They try to be a "good boy" or
"good girl" to live up to these expectations,[2] having learned that
there is inherent value in doing so. Stage three reasoning may judge
the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences in terms of
a person's relationships, which now begin to include things like
respect, gratitude and the "golden rule". "I want to be liked and
thought well of; apparently, not being naughty makes people like
me." Desire to maintain rules and authority exists only to further
support these social roles. The intentions of actors play a more
significant role in reasoning at this stage; "they mean well ...".[2]
DEVELOPMENT

 In Stage four (authority and social order obedience driven), it is
important to obey laws, dictums and social conventions
because of their importance in maintaining a functioning
society. Moral reasoning in stage four is thus beyond the need
for individual approval exhibited in stage three. A central ideal
or ideals often prescribe what is right and wrong, such as in the
case of fundamentalism. If one person violates a law, perhaps
everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to
uphold laws and rules. When someone does violate a law, it is
morally wrong; culpability is thus a significant factor in this
stage as it separates the bad domains from the good ones.
Most active members of society remain at stage four, where
morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.[2]
DEVELOPMENT

 Post-Conventional
 The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, is marked
by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society,
and that the individual’s own perspective may take precedence over
society’s view; individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own
principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical
principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life,
liberty, and justice. People who exhibit post-conventional morality view
rules as useful but changeable mechanisms—ideally rules can maintain the
general social order and protect human rights. Rules are not absolute
dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional
individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social
conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can be confused with
that of those at the pre-conventional level.
DEVELOPMENT

 Some theorists have speculated that many people may never
reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.[7][8][9]
 In Stage five (social contract driven), the world is viewed as
holding different opinions, rights and values. Such
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each
person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts
rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general
welfare should be changed when necessary to meet “the
greatest good for the greatest number of people”.[8] This is
achieved through majority decision, and inevitable
compromise. Democratic government is ostensibly based on
stage five reasoning.
DEVELOPMENT

 In Stage six (universal ethical principles driven), moral reasoning is based
on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Laws are valid only
insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries
with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. Legal rights are unnecessary, as
social contracts are not essential for deontic moral action. Decisions are not
reached hypothetically in a conditional way but rather categorically in an
absolute way, as in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant.[18] This involves an
individual imagining what they would do in another’s shoes, if they
believed what that other person imagines to be true.[19] The resulting
consensus is the action taken. In this way action is never a means but
always an end in itself; the individual acts because it is right, and not
because it is instrumental, expected, legal, or previously agreed upon.
Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to
identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.[15]
DEVELOPMENT

Jmuller.wikispaces.com
Wikipedia.org
Calderon, Jose F., Foundations of Education, Manila, Rex Book Store, Inc. 2003
BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Prepared by:
JARED RAM A. JUEZAN
MAEd – Educational Management
June 28 - 29, 2012
THANK YOU VERY MUCH

Psychological foundation of education

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