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International Journal
of
Learning, Teaching
And
Educational Research
p-ISSN:1694-2493
e-ISSN:1694-2116IJLTER.ORG
Vol.16 No.3
PUBLISHER
London Consulting Ltd
District of Flacq
Republic of Mauritius
www.ijlter.org
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Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de
Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of
Editorial Board
Prof. Cecilia Junio Sabio
Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka
Prof. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola
Dr Jonathan Glazzard
Dr Marius Costel Esi
Dr Katarzyna Peoples
Dr Christopher David Thompson
Dr Arif Sikander
Dr Jelena Zascerinska
Dr Gabor Kiss
Dr Trish Julie Rooney
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Dr Barry Chametzky
Dr Giorgio Poletti
Dr Chi Man Tsui
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Dr Afsaneh Sharif
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Dr Haim Shaked
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Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris
Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez
Dr Özcan Özyurt
Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara
Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and
Educational Research
The International Journal of Learning, Teaching
and Educational Research is an open-access
journal which has been established for the dis-
semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the
field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER
welcomes research articles from academics, ed-
ucators, teachers, trainers and other practition-
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cation in the International Journal of Learning,
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to this journal by submitting articles that illus-
trate research results, projects, original surveys
and case studies that describe significant ad-
vances in the fields of education, training, e-
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pers to this journal through the ONLINE submis-
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being evaluated by IJLTER.
VOLUME 16 NUMBER 3 March 2017
Table of Contents
Multicultural Problem-based Learning Approaches Facilitate ESP Language Acquisition .........................................1
Diane Boothe, DPA, Melissa Caspary, Ph.D., and Clifton D. Wickstrom, Ph.D.
Learning in Motion: Teachers‟ Perspectives on the Impact of Stationary Bike Use in the Classroom ..................... 15
Julie Lynn Mueller, Amanada Wudarzewski and Yoad Avitzur
Expanding Areas of Influence at Azores University: Virtual Campus, Regional Clusters and Points of Presence 29
Rogerio L. Roth
Can You Tell Me Why: Two Extreme Cases in Translation Learning Results ............................................................. 38
Yvonne Ying-Ya Wen
Can Student Engagement in Online Courses Predict Performance on Online Knowledge Surveys?....................... 73
Bernard BAHATI, Uno Fors, Matti Tedre
Effects of Computerized Cognitive Training on Working Memory in a School Setting ............................................ 88
Tessy T. Pumaccahua, M.A., Eugene H. Wong, Ph.D. and Dudley J. Wiest, Ph.D.
How Cooperating Teachers and Interns Understand “Teaching for a Better World” During Internship ............. 105
Twyla Salm, PhD and Val Mulholland, PhD
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© 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 1-14, March 2017
Multicultural Problem-based Learning
Approaches Facilitate ESP Language Acquisition
Diane Boothe, DPA
Boise State University, College of Education
Boise, Idaho, USA
Melissa Caspary, Ph.D.
Georgia Gwinnett College, School of Science and Technology
Lawrenceville, Georgia, USA
Clifton D. Wickstrom, Ph.D.
Managing Director, Educational Pathways
Round Rock, Texas, USA
Abstract. This paper discusses language teaching that incorporates
Problem-based Learning (PBL), which will actively engage English for
Specific Purposes (ESP) learners from diverse cultural
backgrounds. When English language students who are native Speakers
of Other Languages (ESOL) are a portion of the learning group, it
introduces an added level of complexity to the instructional design. The
instructional designer is confronted with an ESP within ESOL dynamic,
which becomes one of the most significant impacting variables in the
learning environment. This topic will be approached utilizing examples
appropriate for a variety of cultures and ESP content areas including
engineering, technology and the sciences. The methods described,
however, have equal value in other disciplines with unique English
language components. The paper will explore use of PBL in a multi-
cultural ESP situation. It is being developed with the purpose and
objectives of including an overview of the key strategies for success in
language acquisition focusing on ESP, and outlining exemplar programs
that can actively engage learners in defined subject-matter contexts. We
begin with the initial notions of PBL in ESOL, and ESP, as separate
methodological arenas, and then the integration of the two (multi-
cultural situation) yields the PBL of ESP within an ESOL environment.
Introduction
There is an adage in the contemporary American education community
that seems most appropriate in the situation we address in this presentation. It
is: “To teach them, you have to be able to reach them.” In the multi-cultural ESP
environment, a language teacher must confront the confounding complexities
imposed by a largely ESOL student population. Reaching that student group is a
challenge that is difficult enough when teaching simple conversational English.
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It becomes considerably more imposing when ESP is the language being taught.
As journal articles have noted, legal and medical English have an almost
exclusively Latinate character, which contributes to an easier understanding and
quicker grasp by those ESP students whose mother tongue is a romance
language. But other ESP focus areas may not offer so easy a path. This is
particularly true in the science and engineering disciplines that have emerged in
the late 19th and 20th centuries. The rapid development and global deployment of
these science, technology, engineering and mathematical (STEM) disciplines has
led to the accumulation of new words in the English lexicon that are simply
“grabbed” from the linguistic environment from which they were first observed.
Thus the ESP vocabulary of these disciplines is, while not “filled”, at least
sprinkled with terms that need specific explanation at first usage to provide clear
understanding of the term, even to the native English speaker. ESP researchers
in Asian nations have noted particular difficulties in this regard in recent
publications (Hoa & Mai, 2016; Liu, 2016: and Banditvilai, 2016), as will be
discussed in greater detail below. The recent literature also contains
methodological suggestions for increasing the effectiveness of ESP learning,
which will also be highlighted (Privas-Breaute, 2016; Kleanthos and Cordozo,
2016; and Wu, 2014)
The Eclectic Character of English
Spanish and French have formal bodies that "authorize" the addition of
words to their officially recognized lexicon, which insist on consistency with
internal phonetic protocols for the formal inclusion of a word into the
languages. German often adds words by combination of existing simpler
German words into more complex structures that are then conjoined to generate
a more complex word form, similar to a phrase, which expresses the meaning.
The English language is primarily Germanic and Latinate in its origins as
any scan through the etymological segments of the Oxford English Dictionary will
illustrate. But, the near global reach of the British Empire led to the early
accumulation of many words in that lexicon not of European origins. This is not
a new phenomenon. The word "khaki", for example, is Hindi (from Sanskrit)
meaning “dust” or “dusty in appearance”. It came into English during the Raj in
the 18th and 19th Century to describe the tan colored cotton
field uniforms issued to local troops of the British colonial army elements. It
ultimately became the common term in English for any tan hard finish cotton
fabric, or even pants made from such fabric.
When one begins to teach ESP, you observe these types of terms
frequently, especially from science or engineering research and practice in non-
European areas. Where a local population has a term that describes an observed
item, phenomenon or event very specifically, that term has been incorporated
directly into English. The English vocabulary of the biological sciences is
literally filled with common plant and animal names used in the regions where
they were first identified. Thus we find baobab and saguaro, orangutan and
coatimundi in our lexicon along with violet and lily of the valley, and lion and
catfish. But the phenomenon is not unique to biology. Several examples will
follow to illustrate this point. This is in addition to English use of Italian,
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© 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
Spanish, French or German words, as they are, without any anglification. Thus
“portico”, "arroyo", "creme de la creme", and "zeitgeist" are in our dictionary, and
common usage instead of, or in addition to, a distinct English term with the
same meaning. We just grab the term, and use it rather than "create" an English
word that fits the “formal structures” of the language.
To illustrate the pattern of simple inclusion of non-European origin terms
described above, as relates specifically to the sciences, one need only ask from
whence did the nouns “monsoon”, “haboob”, “monadnock”, “alkali”, “taiga”
and “fynbos” make their way into the ESP lexicons of meteorology, geology and
ecology? They are Hindi, Arabic, and a colloquial New England geographic
element, Egyptian Arabic, Russian and Afrikaans, respectively. It is easy to see
from these examples that a glossary at least, or a dictionary at best, is an
essential tool in any teaching of the ESP for the newer parts of the science realm.
So long as the terms in question are nouns, the situation is relatively
manageable, with a good glossary, without any etymological components
required. When we begin to incorporate English words that have identical
spelling for their noun and verb forms, or where the past tense of a verb is also
used as an adjective, for example, the situation becomes far more complicated.
Two examples come immediately to mind. The first is “structure”. As a verb it
means “to construct”, “to build” or “to arrange”. As a noun it means “an object
that is built or constructed”. The past tense of the verb, “structured” can also be
employed as an adjective, as in “a structured vocabulary”. A far more complex
example is the word “stuff”. As a verb it means “to fill, frequently to capacity or
beyond”. As a noun, it is a plural collective, referring to any assemblage of items,
without specific description. To further complicate the usage of “stuff”, the past
tense of the verb, “stuffed” is also used, at least colloquially, as an adjective,
frequently in cooking terms, to imply an object with a cavity that is filled with
other material, as in a “stuffed goose”.
Thus we see that the eclectic, complex character of English makes it more
difficult for the conversational ESOL learner, and the specialized ESP learner in
the Sciences is frequently, confronted with vocabulary not of traditional
Germanic or Latinate origins, adding to that difficulty. Addressing these issues
requires a very carefully planned approach where problem-based learning
methodologies can be employed to overcome these inherent complexities of
contemporary English, particularly within the science, technology, engineering
and mathematics (STEM) environments.
Problem-based Learning (PBL), an Explanation
PBL has its origins in medical education in Canada, and thus has roots in a
discipline where ESP is an integral part of the educational process. It quickly
attracted attention and usage in the English-speaking medical education
community, and from there spread into post-secondary settings in the United
States and other Anglo-phone nations. Problem-Based Learning is a flourishing
approach to learning that is extremely useful in promoting critical and analytical
thinking, and in addressing the rapid technological changes and dynamic
workplace of the 21st Century (Nicolaides, 2012). PBL is founded on an
unconventional pedagogical model when viewed alongside the conventional
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didactic one and it offers greater benefits to the quality of student learning
(Greening, 1998). The similarities to the case study methodologies employed in
the business education community were also quickly recognized. The
advantages of PBL over the case method were quickly recognized, since the
frequently complex case development process could be avoided by focusing on
an unstructured problem in the abstract, without the need of the detailed
background, setting and circumstance development that cases involve. This is
also the case relating to the science field and further attention is being devoted to
exploring active learning methodologies for language learners in the scientific
curriculum (Caspary & Boothe, 2016).
Problem-based learning is defined as “an approach that challenges
students to learn through engagement in a real problem. It is a format that
simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary
knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem-
solvers confronted with an ill-structured situation that simulates the kind of
problems they are likely to face in complex professional circumstances” (Stover,
1998). Gvardjancic notes (2001) “PBL emphasizes the learning part of the
teaching-learning process. It is based on the idea that learners learn what is
meaningful to them and learn better if they feel in control of what they are
learning.” “The philosophy behind Problem-based learning is that knowledge
and skills are acquired through a progressive sequence of contextual problems,
together with learning materials and the support of the instructor” (eLearning
Industry, 2014).
PBL is not new. Stepien and Gallagher suggest that, “it has been a major
success since the 1970s. PBL turns the instructional setting topsy-turvy, shifting
the learning environment from a teacher centered to a learner centered one. In
the place of covering the curriculum, learners probe deeply into issues searching
for connections, grappling with complexity, and using knowledge to fashion
solutions” (Stepien & Gallagher, 1993). Yew and Goh (2016) focus on the process
and impact on learning provided by Problem-based learning, and examine its
effectiveness concluding that “studies comparing the relative effectiveness of
PBL are generally consistent in demonstrating its superior efficacy for longer-
term knowledge retention.”According to Stover (1998) PBL “will increase
retention of knowledge, help students transfer concepts to new problems,
enhance students’ interest in the content and enhance self-directed learning”.
Realistic problems are the key to the use of the PBL model. But what are
the characteristics of good problems? Duch (1996) lists some of the
characteristics of good problems as:
1. “An effective problem must first engage students’ interest and motivate
them to probe for deeper understanding of the concepts being
introduced.
2. Good problems require students to make decisions or judgments based
on facts, logic and/or rationalization.
3. Cooperation from all members of the student group is necessary in order
to work effectively through a good problem.
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4. The initial questions in the problem should have one or more of the
following characteristics; they should be:
open-ended
connected to previously learned knowledge
controversial issues that will elicit divers opinions.
5. The content objectives of the course should be incorporated into the
problems, connecting previous knowledge to new concepts and connecting
new knowledge to concepts in other courses and/or disciplines.”
Ron Purser (2010), a faculty member in the graduate management
program at the San Francisco State University notes,
“Problem-based learning is student-centered. PBL makes a fundamental
shift--from a focus on teaching to a focus on learning. The process is
aimed at using the power of authentic problem solving to engage
students and enhance their learning and motivation.” There are several
unique aspects that define the PBL approach:
1. “Learning takes place within the contexts of authentic tasks, issues, and
problems--that are aligned with real-world concerns.
2. In a PBL course, students and the instructor become co-learners, co-
planners, co-producers, and co-evaluators as they design, implement,
and continually refine their curricula.
3. The PBL approach is grounded in solid academic research on learning
and on the best practices that promote it. This approach stimulates
students to take responsibility for their own learning, since there are few
lectures, no structured sequence of assigned readings, and so on.
4. PBL is unique in that it fosters collaboration among students, stresses the
development of problem solving skills within the context of professional
practice, promotes effective reasoning and self-directed learning, and is
aimed at increasing motivation for life-long learning.”
PBL is a multilevel approach to learning that incorporates relevance and
complexity while strengthening critical and analytical thinking, and provides an
opportunity for self-assessment and continuous improvement. PBL guides
exploration, and students who learn using this model develop a sense of self-
esteem and ownership for their work. Through the use of this model,
opportunities abound for linguistic development coupled with acquisition of
content area knowledge. Scott (2014) focuses on a multilevel analysis of
Problem-based learning design characteristics and “proposes and tests a
multilevel of PBL design characteristics reporting findings that reinforce the
importance of problem design characteristics and effective team facilitation
while raising new questions about team-level characteristics.”
The key to the success of English language acquisition through PBL is to
utilize selected constructive problems purposefully designed to address the
desired learning outcomes. These problems are often influenced by social and
contextual factors. Most students already possess conceptual knowledge in their
native language. Cummins (2000) states: “Conceptual knowledge developed in
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one language helps to make input in the other language comprehensible.”
Careful lesson planning is necessary in terms of language learning and content
knowledge. When using the PBL model, content is introduced in the context of
real world problems. The learners’ acquisition of knowledge is achieved through
a combination of learning strategies that are self-directed, independent, and
collaborative, while also emphasizing communication skills and providing
ongoing reinforcement.
Although the sources of problems and the contexts for their classroom
use may vary, PBL has common features: problems should engage students’
interest and motivate learning, require students to develop a line of reasoning
that is backed by evidence, be complex enough to motivate participation of a
group of students rather than just a single individual, be open-ended enough at
the outset to allow participation by all students, incorporate the learning
objectives of the course, and allow for many legitimate paths to a single
resolution (Duch, 1996).
Problem-based Learning in an ESOL Environment
Kosel (2002) points out that use of PBL is relatively new in the field of
language teaching and learning. According to Gvarsjancic (2001), the teaching
approach was introduced with the desire to integrate language and content
study to facilitate autonomous learning. He contends that the idea to use PBL in
language learning was developed by a Leonardo da Vinci pilot project for the
year 1999/2000 entitled Teaching English for Technical Purposes—TENTEC.
Gvardjancic (2001) says the following about the results:
“The results of the project showed that was especially appropriate for
teaching languages across the curriculum for some reason. Firstly, there
is the question of motivation. ESP teachers sometimes find it difficult to
motivate their technically or professionally oriented students for
language learning. Even carefully designed curricula, which follow needs
analysis, do not always meet the real interests of young student
population. Updated textbooks soon become boring and obsolete since
new information is easily accessible on the internet. So, a real-life
problem raises motivation. Secondly, and closely connected with the
question of motivation, is the significance of teaching languages across
the curriculum. Languages at tertiary level are often treated as second-
rate subjects. This situation is reflected in students’ attitude towards
language as a faculty subject which they consider a necessary evil but not
linked to what they believe to be their genuine study program. This
situation can be changed. Working closely with “subject teachers”,
language specialist becomes involved with the faculty programmes,
while the students feel they can combine their professional knowledge
and their knowledge of language”.
Kosel (2002) enumerates the following as some of the advantages of PBL
approach in teaching English across the curriculum:
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1. “A real problem raises motivation, much more than a preselected
sequence of information from a course book.
2. In the model, students can integrate their professional knowledge and
their knowledge of English.
3. The model makes them better equipped with functional skills needed
for their professional careers and thus makes them more competitive on
the job market.
4. Individual and social learning are combined.
5. English is learnt while doing something else, which goes together with
the slogan “Learn by Doing.”
Problem-based learning can be used to actively engage learners and
bridge the gap between English language learners and their subject matter.
Methodology rooted in inquiry can be particularly effective for teaching science
and mathematics (Stoddart et al., 2002), and can enhance comprehension for
primary grade learners up through the specialized focus of higher education
coursework. In PBL, students are asked to apply a newly acquired skill set to a
real life problem, where the students are the active centers of learning and the
instructors serve as the facilitators. This educational model can help to
communicate relevance in science and engineering disciplines which are
plagued with a stigma that dictates these subjects should be difficult and
daunting. The PBL paradigm asks students to take on an active role in their
education, where the learning becomes everyone’s responsibility.
In Polanyi’s (1966) definitions of explicit and tacit learning, explicit
knowledge is defined as transmittable by formal, systematic language and tacit
learning refers to knowledge attained through action. For students struggling
with language acquisition, tacit learning, which is grounded in experimentation
and experience, is the optimal mode for gaining expertise in a given subject. It is
recognized that current educational policies and practices do not support
desired outcomes with English language learners (Lee, 2005). By providing
students with an inquiry-based approach for solving real-world problems,
students working hard to gain proficiency in English speaking and literacy can
gain understanding in a discipline through performance. “When students are
driving the problem posing and decision making, it has been found that these
inquiry-based methods personalize the project, increase relevance, and create
ownership” (Johnson and Kean, 1992). The following illustrations from the
world of praxis are good examples.
At the elementary school level, PBL was used in the creation of an
outdoor classroom in Athens, Georgia. Students were charged with the task of
creating a flexible outdoor classroom space. The students were asked to
participate in every part of the implementation process, from brainstorming the
design, through the execution of the project, and finally with the development of
a curriculum around the conceived environment. A range of kindergarten
through fifth grade students were taken to the proposed outdoor classroom site
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and then asked to imagine their ideal outdoor learning environment. They had
the opportunity to illustrate these thoughts and share them with a Master’s of
Landscape Architecture student at the University of Georgia. The graduate
student then took the student designs and compiled their ideas into a conceptual
plan. The students assisted in the grading and planting of the site, as well as
engineering a rain garden with French drains, a bog, a brick pathway, and
retaining walls. The planting and installation of over 40 different native
perennial plant species ensured a botanical wealth of learning opportunities for
future classroom participants. The service-learning component of the project
provided equitable learning opportunities where language barriers could be
crossed through student collaboration toward a common goal.
This creation of the outdoor classroom required elementary students to
make a personal investment in their education and into the project, where they
were more likely to use their support network of parents, teachers, friends and
the community to help them meet the goals of the project. English language
learners who participated in the project were given a cooperative learning
environment to strengthen peer relationships. The hands-on nature of the project
created a sense of ownership among project participants and catered to a wide
range of skill and ability levels. The problem-based approach took the focus out
of the lecture-based classroom and into an environment where learning involved
doing, and ESOL students experienced a rich opportunity to develop specialized
language skills in an applied setting.
In an example from higher education, master’s students in the College of
Environment and Design at the University of Georgia assisted in the creation of
a master plan for the State Botanical Garden of Georgia. These students brought
together skills from the fields of geography, archeology, architecture, art,
horticulture, and plant biology and worked as a dynamic and collaborative
whole toward addressing the infrastructure problems of an entire institution and
anticipating future needs of the facilities. English language learners in the group
found themselves on equitable footing with other members of the group. Any
language challenges students faced were resolved through the give and take of
peer interaction, where shortcomings in one area were matched with a display of
skill in other areas. The students were called on to demonstrate their proficiency
with technology through the use of mapping software, their skill in design, and
a competency at representing the conceptual plan in presentations to garden
staff. These project requirements all reinforced specialized language acquisition
for English language learners without drawing unwanted attention to individual
deficiency or necessitating abstract language acquisition techniques. Instead of
being allowed to go unattended in a classroom instructional setting, each
student’s needs were addressed in the light of achieving a common goal.
A new program aimed at improving international student performance
is now being offered to students at one United States university. Golden Gate
University (GGU) in San Francisco, California, is offering a specialized English
language program. The GGU Preparation in Language and University Studies
(PLUS) program has been designed specifically for ESOL students, who have
limited speaking and writing skills, to participate in a collaborative process to
improve their English proficiency. GGU has a large Asian international student
population, with students from Mongolia, South Korea, Japan, China and
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Taiwan, needing to increase their proficiency in written and spoken English.
PLUS is designed to encourage students to work in collaborative sessions,
geared to solving common problems associated with the business curriculum, in
which most students are enrolled. The program has a remarkably high 80-85%
success rate as reported by Karin Fischer (2011) in her Chronicle of Higher
Education article on PLUS.
Focus on STEM ESP
As noted above, the eclectic character of English has added numerous
words to the lexicon with origins remote from the language’s Western European
roots. This phenomenon is evident throughout the language, and has been of
particular impact in the sciences, technology, engineering and mathematics
(STEM) communities, as they become increasingly global in character, and have
begun to rely upon English as a common medium of information exchange. The
teaching of English as a “foreign language” has reached global proportions, with
special schools teaching ESOL appearing literally in every corner of the planet.
The demand for teachers of ESOL has increased dramatically at the same time.
What has become increasingly evident is that traditionally trained ESOL
teachers may not be able to fully prepare non-English speakers in the STEM
fields. This issue has been commented upon as applies to engineering students
in Saudi Arabia (Alqahtani, 2015, p93), Taiwan (Wu, 2014, p122), and Viet Nam
(Hoa and Mai, 2016, p155), and may be generalized as particularly true in Asian
countries, where vocabulary issues and passive learning styles impede ESOL
learning situations. Boothe and Vaughn (2011) note that, often, lecture in STEM
fields is difficult for English language learners to follow coherently. They
become lost in the dialogue that may be too fast paced for them, and thus have
little opportunity for reinforcement of language skills. This is at least partially
explained by the increasing use of specialized, discipline specific, vocabularies
within the various fields. In addition, the traditional language teaching methods
have proven to be less than effective in these fields because of the need to
successfully build student facility in these specialized English vocabularies.
Contemporary researchers have proposed numerous methods to overcome these
problems. These include the avatar/spect-actor process proposed by Privas-
Beaute (2016, p40-52), corpus building as proposed by Wu (2014, p120-127),
blended learning as proposed by Banditvilai (2016, p220-229) and collaborative
vocabulary building through blogging as outlined by Kleanthos and Cordozo
(2016, p225-229), among others. It is our proposal that the use of PBL
methodologies, as outlined above, and especially those proven to have positive
impact in other ESOL arenas, may be of particular utility in building ESP
proficiency among non-English speakers within the STEM communities.
Integration: PBL of ESP within an ESOL environment, Why and how?
The authors contend that it is crucial for PBL to be infused throughout
ESP strategies and learning activities. Teamwork and collaboration are the keys
to the majority of workplace endeavors and professionals are being challenged
to inspire original and critical thinking. Innovation and creativity thrive among
settings where employees and learners in other venues can move forward and
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© 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
achieve in their area of expertise supported by ESP achievement that fits the task
at hand. As English language skills and communication improves, the tools and
support are in place for impressive outcomes.
Krashen (1981) advocates the use of a natural approach to strengthen
new language acquisition. PBL supports his research and surpasses traditional
language acquisition methodologies. Students are required to make connections
as group communication is strengthened. By applying language skills to the
workplace, students develop survival skills for the working environment,
increase their workforce marketability, and prepare themselves for lifelong
learning.
The PBL model ensures that language skills are strengthened by
experience with a broader scope of disciplines at the same time. “Collaboration
and hands-on learning will lower the affective filters that Krashen cautions will
deter students from successful language learning.” By combining language with
new professional content knowledge using PBL, language skills are reinforced
through group dynamics, workplace reality, and content area knowledge.
Language learning and logical thinking are linked to future endeavors and the
students’ fields of work.
Flexibility and improvement of quality and achievement will be realized
when an opportunity to incorporate ESP learning and instruction is supported
through proven reinforcement activities that actively engage participants. There
is a significant need to strengthen English language skills, recalibrate
expectations, and better position native English speakers and professionals who
are employed in English language settings. Expertise in their discipline is greatly
appreciated, yet the greatest positive impact is realized when ESP is successfully
coupled with performance in their occupation. The result is a significant shift in
workplace expectations and needs. PBL makes the adjustments to collaborative
and innovative activities more workable. English language learning, solutions to
problems, and innovative advancements are realized simultaneously. Coupling
strong subject matter and language learning strategies eliminates disconnects
between content knowledge advancements in the workplace and English
language competency challenges. The greatest positive impact in both areas is
apparent as long as PBL activities are properly aligned to the learner’s
occupation.
On the assessment side, gains will be evident and incremental successes
will be enhanced, not just one time, but in an on-going and increasing basis
throughout the process as we seek solutions for balancing and restructuring ESP
and workplace endeavors. Specific experiences with PBL (Kaufman, et al, 1989)
and meta-analyses of outcomes (Albanese and Mitchell, 1993) from PBL
curricula in the medical school context have shown that content learning in PBL
matches that in a traditional curriculum. Additional outcomes in PBL include
greater retention of knowledge and greater satisfaction with the educational
experience.
When language accommodations are no longer required, additional time
and energy will be available for implementation of greater workplace skills
requirements. A program combining PBL and ESP strives to strengthen
accomplishments of employers and employees alike, and enhances strong
teamwork with an emphasis on creativity and innovation. As professionals are
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© 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
walking down the situational paths relevant to the environment in which they
work, they can acquire new knowledge and language proficiency
simultaneously. Employing PBL and ESP strategies that change the context in
which we reach educational and occupational investments will result in
significant accomplishments and gains in both areas.
Examples from the International Community
Globally, examples abound of the employment of PBL methodologies to
increase ESP facility. The country of Korea is rapidly adapting PBL to the field of
ESP in the information age. They are striving to challenge competitors and are
promoting improvement of educational quality and enhancement of accessibility
using PBL in the workplace, cyber-culture, and the English language classroom.
At universities and in corporate business settings, English is becoming the key to
advancement, rising in importance over seniority and subject area/discipline
specific education.
For example, securing a position as a flight attendant is a highly
competitive and coveted accomplishment. Recruitment events draw hundreds of
applicants. English skills and a university education are required along with
grooming and excellent social skills. In fact, academies called hagwons are
springing up to prepare aspiring applicants and provide PBL opportunities with
a strong focus on ESP.
There is an abundance of math and science majors in Korea who are
interested in securing teaching positions in the public schools. Teaching is a
respected occupation in Korea and jobs are highly competitive. One reason for
this is that there is a high level of job security until the mandatory retirement age
of 65, and teachers receive tenure during their first year on the job. However,
English competence is in significant need, and although coursework is offered,
excellent English teachers with clear pronunciation and speaking competence
are not available in the quantities necessary to meet the need. As a result,
English courses are often taught by Korean professors who are limited in their
English acquisition because they, too, were taught by Korean professors who do
not have optimum English language competency. It is interesting to note that
exchange programs are growing that focus on bringing Korean teachers to the
United States to accept difficult to fill math and science positions. This requires
at least two years in English language pre-service preparation at US universities
in order to meet the qualifications of both content and pedagogy. The necessary
government visas need to be obtained to ensure that this is successful. A large
part of the pre-professional training will focus on PBL and activities appropriate
for the classroom setting. It is also worthy of note that private instruction in
English, taught by native English speakers, is in high demand, and teachers for
such programs are being continuously recruited in England, Canada, the United
States, Australia and New Zealand.
In Italy and Germany, ESP is a crucial area and numerous ESP programs
and conferences are available. Often PBL sessions are held at the workplace. For
example, corporations such as Hewlett Packard have sites in both countries and
offer mandatory PBL training sessions in English related to the specific
qualifications and responsibilities of an employee’s position.
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© 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
Conclusions and Recommendations
We suggest that the examples above illustrate that use of problem-based
learning tools have much to offer in the teaching of English for Specific
Purposes. This is particularly true in the case of the STEM disciplines which
have emerged to full development and proliferation in the 20th Century and
expand in importance in the 21st. One conclusion we reach in this regard is that
the problem definition, and then systematic solution seeking emphasis of these
disciplines lend themselves uniquely to the PBL approach to learning the unique
English of the fields, and that the scholars and practitioners in these fields will
be the ultimate beneficiaries.
Several of the authors referenced have noted that there are attitudinal
and learning style issues that impede effective ESP learning. They have
noted:
- indifference to use of English, in spite of globalization of disciplinary
communications;
- vocabulary weakness with little interest in building term knowledge to a
critical mass associated with effective written or verbal exchanges within a
professional setting;
- student passivity in academic settings that reflects cultural reluctance to
confront authority figures, even in the face pressures to adapt;
- and, conversational pace inhibiting clear understanding of both
theoretical and practical considerations. It is our conclusion and suggestion that
the use of a problem-based approach in ESP learning situations, especially those
in STEM fields, will help to overcome these obstacles to learning, and contribute
to greater facility in English by the learner, within and without the area of
specific emphasis.
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 15-28, March 2017
Learning in Motion: Teachers‟ Perspectives on
the Impact of Stationary Bike Use in the
Classroom
Julie Lynn Mueller
Wilfrid Laurier University
Waterloo, Canada
Amanada Wudarzewski
Run for Life
Yoad Avitzur
Wilfrid Laurier University
Waterloo, Canada
Abstract. The potential of physical activity to support self-regulated
learning in the classroom has encouraged the implementation of
stationary bicycles across Canada and the United States. Positive
testimonials suggest that their use by students has positive outcomes,
but there is limited empirical evidence supporting the efficacy of this
pedagogical practice. The current study analyzes teachers‟ perceptions
of the use and impact of stationary exercise bicycles in classrooms as
part of a community running program initiative through a nationwide
survey of 107 participants. Key findings identify teacher perceptions of
positive outcomes in students‟ social, emotional, and cognitive
development, as well as to the learning environment. A small set of
unique challenges were posed by the bike integration, including limited
distraction and some scheduling difficulties. Teachers approached the
integration of the bikes on a spectrum of control from “student-
regulated” to “teacher-regulated” with some combination of both, and
movement from teacher-directed use to more student-initiated use after
the bike was in use for some time. The implications for the use of
stationary bikes as a tool for self-regulated learning in an active
classroom are discussed and future research measuring learning
outcomes is suggested.
Keywords: self-regulated learning; active learning; elementary
education; aerobic activity; teacher perceptions
Research across disciplines suggests that physical fitness and exercise have a
positive effect on brain activity, working-memory, executive function, and
emotion regulation, as well as a mitigating effect on age-related cognitive decline
and disease (Berg, 2010; Pontifex, Hillman, FernHall, Thompson, & Valentini,
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2009; Van Praag, 2009; Ratey, 2008; Shanker 2012; Sibley & Beilock, 2007;
Tomporowski, Lambourne, & Okumra, 2011). Aerobic exercise acts as a
stimulant to the brain, increasing cerebral blood flow, synaptic activity and
neural connections, which potentially improve learning (Berg, 2010; Pontifex et
al., 2009). Multiple studies testing brain function before a period of moderate to
significant weekly exercise and afterward found that exercise improves overall
brain function (Van Praag, 2009).
The cognitive effects of exercise are not limited to an increase in overall brain
activation, but physical activity enhances neurotransmitter activity affecting
higher order cognitive functioning, executive control, and working memory as
well. A variety of studies have shown a relationship between exercise and
complicated task performance, including increased inhibitory control, increased
focus, and an improved ability to resist distractions (Hillman, Pontifex, Raine,
Casterlli, Hall, & Kramer, 2009; Hillman, Snook, and Jerome, 2003; Pontifex et al.,
2009; & Sibley & Beilock, 2007). It is therefore suggested that children‟s ability to
regulate their emotions can be enhanced by aerobic activity which helps in the
management of anger, stress, fatigue, and restlessness which can present
roadblocks to on-task behaviour and readiness to learn (Berg, 2010; Mahar,
Murphy, Rowe, Golden, Shields, & Raedeke, 2006; Ratey, 2008).
The importance of physical activity to the overall functioning of the human
brain is recognized by scientific literature. One study found that aerobic exercise
led to improved behavioural and academic performance for children with
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) when compared to a control
(Pontifex, Saliba, Raine, Picchietti, & Hillman, 2013). Additionally, Ratey (2008)
describes the correlation between physical exercise and academic performance
in a case study of a secondary school in Naperville, Illinois. Naperville students
engaged in moderate to vigorous physical exercise before learning, resulting in
improvements to student achievement, including increased test scores and an
enhancement of students‟ attention, alertness, and relaxation. In addition to
improving overall cognitive functioning, morning exercise increased students‟
capacity to ignore distractions and effectively regulate their emotions, thus
improving students‟ ability to learn. The success of the Naperville Project
provided the impetus for the adoption of similar programs throughout the
United States, including the PE4life programs, which “have trained over one
thousand educators and 350 schools to emulate their program” (Stattlesmair &
Ratey, 2009, p. 370).
This evidence suggests that exercise can be used as a tool by teachers to help
maintain and facilitate cognitive functioning in children. Tranter & Kerr (2016)
identified physical exercise as an important „up-regulating‟ strategy, to be used
throughout the school day, particularly when students‟ focus might dwindle.
Exercises included activities such as stretching, yoga, jumping jacks, and
dancing. In Ontario, Canada, the Ministry of Education mandated 20 minutes of
compulsory Daily Physical Activity (DPA) in response to research that identified
advantages to student self-regulated learning (SRL), including student attitude,
and willingness to meet the challenges of daily life (Ontario Ministry of
Education, 2005).
Self-regulation can be conceptualized as a process of ongoing mental
adjustment; one that requires the constant monitoring and modification of
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© 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
emotions; focussing or shifting attention; controlling impulses; tolerating
frustrations; and, delaying gratification (Shanker, 2012). Self-regulated learning
(SRL) deals with equipping students with the skills necessary to observe their
bodies and adjust their states of arousal to maximize the potential for learning to
occur. This „optimal‟ state requires staying alert, focused, and relaxed, and
necessitates an intimate knowledge of one‟s emotional and physical states so
that one could discern how these states are distracting or contributing to
processing and assimilating information (Shanker, 2012). Cognitive mechanisms
including executive functioning, inhibitory control, and concentration, necessary
for self-regulation and a readiness to learn, are enhanced by physical exercise
(Pontifex et al. 2009; Van Praag, 2009; Ratey, 2008; Sibley & Beilock, 2007;
Tomporowski et al., 2011; Woltering & Lewis, 2009).
Monitoring and adjusting negative emotions is a necessary component of
emotional self-regulation, but it is not sufficient. In addition to regulating or
managing negative emotions, children must be encouraged to develop positive
ones through nurturing feelings of self-worth and security (Shanker, 2012).
Physical exercise could be seen as an activity that builds self-esteem and well-
being in addition to countering stress, fatigue, anger, and anxiety. Physical
activity has the potential to support self-regulation of negative emotions in a
learning environment as well as increase feelings of self-esteem.
Educators across Canada have introduced classroom use of stationary bikes
in an effort to improve SRL in children, promoting the control of both negative
and positive emotions in preparation for learning. Bikes were intended to
provide an opportunity for any student who is feeling distracted, anxious, tired,
or angry throughout the school day to „hop on‟ and pedal until he or she is ready
to learn. Canadian national news media have reported largely positive teacher
and student feedback following the implementation of stationary bike programs
in public schools (Senick 2017; Thomson 2016; Mitton & Barth, 2016). Yet, one
opinion piece (Bennett 2016) is more critical, stating that “Self-regulation – with
or without spin bikes – may turn out to be another passing fancy in education
reform.” Further, in his opinion piece, Bennett (2016) notes the lack of research
on the subject and asks “where‟s the research to support these classroom spin
bike experiments?”
Indeed, the growing popularity of stationary bicycles in the classroom
setting is contrasted with the absence of empirical study on the impact of this
intervention on classroom dynamics and student learning. An analysis of the
use of stationary bikes in classrooms should discern its effects on classroom
management and dynamics, as well as its influence on student emotions and
behaviours, including self-esteem, relaxation, mental awareness, and well-being.
The current study initiates this necessary evaluation by examining teachers‟
perspectives of the impact of classroom use of stationary bikes, and the variables
that might predict student self-regulation and learning outcomes.
Method
One hundred and seven Canadian teachers from urban, suburban, and rural
schools from across the country completed a 44-question online survey about the
use of stationary exercise bikes in their schools. Participating teachers worked in
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varied school contexts, in which schools were either publicly or privately
funded, with populations ranging from under 100 to over 500 students, with
students in Kindergarten to Grade 12. All participants were enrolled in
Sparksfly, a stationary bike program offered by Run for Life--a non-profit
community organization that deploys bicycles into classrooms to support
students‟ active learning and self-regulation.
The survey (see appendix A) was comprised of five parts including both
forced-choice and open-ended questions examining consent; pedagogical
strategies related to bike use; perspectives on observed behavioural outcomes;
any challenges encountered during the implementation; and, demographic
questions describing the schools and classrooms, funding, and future
recommendations. Qualitative answers were recorded in Word documents and
coded by two researchers for emerging themes. Any discrepancies were
resolved through discussion.
Results
Description of Stationary Bike Use
The majority of teachers (83%) indicated that their stationary bikes were
located in their classrooms, while the remainder were located in a resource room
or in another type of shared space. The specific location within the classroom
varied across respondents. Teachers indicated that their bikes had been in their
current location for a range of time; from less than a month (11%) to more than a
year (24.3%). A slight majority of teachers (52%) indicated that the bikes were
somewhat new, in the present location for a few months.
The clear majority of teachers indicated that students used the bikes at least
once per week (98%). Seventy five percent of teachers provided their students
with specific bike-use guidelines while the remaining 25% did not. Among
those teachers that did provide guidelines to their students, 68% gave
instructions on turn-duration, ranging from one minute to 30 minutes, with 74%
of teachers instructing their students to use the bikes for less than 10 minutes at
one time. Qualitative answers indicated that duration of use depended on
several factors, including demand and student need, e.g., “10 – 15 minutes
depending on demand,” or “at least 5 minutes,” or “in my case, there is no
misuse, and no time limit.”
Participants were also asked to describe how they decided which students
used the bikes and when. Qualitative answers were coded into four categories
according to the degree of teacher/student control over the decision of by
whom, and when, the bikes were used. Fifty-five percent of answers were coded
as student regulated, while 19 percent of answers were coded as teacher regulated.
A significant number of responses were coded as a combination of the two (17%),
and 9 percent changed approaches beginning with a teacher regulated approach
and later moved to a more student regulated method.
There were two student regulated subcategories, based on the degree of
autonomy students were given to determine bike use. Some teachers allowed
students to use the bikes on a permission-basis, according to which students first
recognized their need to self-regulate, and then asked the teacher if bike use was
permitted at that moment by raising their hand or displaying some type of
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signal, e.g., “Students can use a hand signal to ask to use the bike any time when
the teacher is at the front of the room teaching or explaining.” Some teachers
created an open/closed sign for the bike, and „opened‟ the equipment‟s use
during work periods or other independent work time and „closed‟ it during
instruction, while others allowed for constant student-controlled bike- use. The
second subcategory in the student regulated theme, granted the most student
control in determining bike-use. Decisions in this subcategory were based on a
first-come-first serve basis. If students felt the need to regulate because of
boredom, agitation, anxiety, or other distracting emotion or sensation, they were
allowed to simply get out of their seats and use the bikes.
The „teacher regulated’ category included three subcategories that also varied
in degree of teacher control. The first subcategory included teacher-identified use
where the need for bike use was recognized by the teacher rather than the
student based on the student‟s agitation, anxiety, or boredom. The teacher
recognized the need and suggested that the student use the bicycle, e.g., “if I see
subtle cues to anxiousness I will ask if the student might like to jump on the
Spark Bike.” A second subcategory divided access across students but with
some students having priority over others based on their specific needs, e.g.,
“we have a schedule made so all students get an opportunity to use the bike.
However, some names are on the schedule more than others.” The third
subcategory still included teacher control but in a scheduled approach. Turns on
the bikes were offered to all students equally and students were allowed to
choose to either take their turn or to forfeit it. An example illustrating this
subcategory is one teacher‟s invention of „The Bike Cup‟, which passed “from
student to student. The student may choose to pass or ride the bike. If they
pass, the cup goes to the next student. If they bike, they bike for two-three
minutes and then pass the cup to the next student. In the morning, the cup is
placed on a random student's desk and they decide which direction the cup will
go.”
Seventeen percent of teachers reported using both types of approaches
simultaneously, typically allowing for student-regulation, but electing students
to go when a student‟s need to self-regulate goes unnoticed by that student. For
example, one teacher said “the students decide when I am teaching and they feel
they have sat too long on the mat or when they are finished work; I decide when
they are needing a refocus.”
Lastly, 9% of teachers described their experience as one in which the bikes
went through an initial period of teacher-control, and as students became more
familiar with the equipment they were granted more autonomy for regulation.
One teacher explains: “At first, there was a class list and they went in order.
After a few days, we developed a signal (twirl your finger in the air). As the
novelty faded, kids don't require permission. They just hop on whenever they
want.”
Additional Classroom Physical Activity
In addition to stationary bike use, 77% of teachers surveyed indicated that
they incorporated other physical activity opportunities in the classroom for their
students. These other activities were categorized into three themes: dynamic full-
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body movements, outdoor physical activity, and stationary activities in their seats.
Eighty-five percent of responses fit in the full body category, and included
activities like: BrainBreak, Gonoodle, Daily Vigorous Physical Activity (DVPA),
yoga, running on the spot, jumping around, dancing, Zumba, and stretching. A
smaller percentage (8%) of responses indicated that they took their students for
outdoor physical activity, and six percent had their students perform different
stationary activities in their seats, such as under-the-desk pedalling, active seating,
breathing exercises, and meditation.
Teachers were also asked if they modeled bike use in the classroom, and if
so, how often students saw them using the stationary bike, on a five-point scale,
ranging from 1 (Not at All) to 5 (More Than Once a Week). The mean score of 2.56
and standard deviation of 1.73 suggests significant variance amongst teachers,
wherein a large number (45%) of teachers do not model bike-use to their
students at all while 35% use the stationary bikes in front of their students at
least once a week.
Perceived Outcomes of Bike Use: Benefits
Teachers were asked to agree or disagree with six statements about the
perceived benefits of stationary bike use for students, on a five-point scale
ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), 3 (neutral). These
questions asked whether teachers believed that the use of the stationary bikes
increased students‟ sense of accomplishment, relaxation, mental-alertness, and
self-esteem; whether they had observed any positive physical changes in
students; and whether students enjoyed using the stationary bike (see Table 1 for
means and standard deviations).
Table 1. Means and standard deviations for perceived positive outcome variables.
Outcome Mean SD n
Enjoyment 4.5 .67 102
Accomplishment 3.93 .87 88
Relaxation 4.24 .64 98
Mental Alertness 4.24 .68 95
Self-Esteem 3.96 .76 91
Physical Changes 3.23 .87 78
A Perceived Positive Outcomes variable was calculated as an aggregate of
the six separate questions (α = .89) for participants who answered each of the
relevant questions (n=66). Overall, teachers reported that the stationary bikes
had a positive effect on students in their classrooms (M= 4.05, SD = 0.59). A
multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine what specific variables
might predict teachers‟ perceived positive outcomes. Six variables were entered
into the regression: how long the bike has been in its location; how often an individual
student gets to use the bike; intensity with which the students use the bike; how often the
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students see their teacher using the stationary bikes; physical activities in the classroom
other than the bikes; and teacher perception of targeted use (whether the teacher
found that students with attention or behavioural difficulties were particularly
drawn to the stationary bike). The linear combination of these six measures was
significantly related to perceived positive outcomes, F (6, 94) = 10.51, p < .001.
The adjusted R square was .37, indicating that approximately 37% of the
variance of perceived positive outcomes can be accounted for by the linear
combination of the measures outlined above. Five out of the six independent
variable were statistically significant (smallest t= 2.12, p= .04 to largest t = 3.96,
p<.001). The only variable that did not significantly add to the regression was
how long the bike has been in its location, t=1.25, p=.21.
In addition to perceived positive outcomes, teachers were asked to use their
own words to describe any other benefits that they perceived to result from
student bike use. Thirty-six percent of participants provided answers that were
categorized by five themes describing benefits related to physical, cognitive,
emotional, and social development, as well as the learning environment. Teachers
reported observing several physical improvements in their students due to the
use of the stationary bikes, e.g., one kindergarten teacher said that the bike they
have in their classroom “helps strengthen our students‟ gross motor
development”, while another reported that bike use “increased better cardio in
students.”
Perceptions that bike use led to cognitive improvements were detailed as an
increase in students‟ attention capacities, time-management skills, and ability to
take effective breaks from learning. For example, one teacher reported that
“some [students] are able to sustain attention longer than they were doing before
I got my bike”, and that “students [were] becoming more independent in their
break choices.”
Improvement in students‟ emotional development were primarily related to an
increased capacity for emotional regulation. For example, one teacher said that
they “have found that for some students it helps to reduce anxiety to have that
physical release. They are also more aware of their own moods and feelings as it
has prompted us to do more focused learning of the recognition of these things.”
Another teacher reported that students “generally seem more relaxed and ready
to settle in to work”, another that students are “more aware of their bodies and
brain development”, and lastly, “as well as having a calming effect, it [the bike]
can also pep up tired students.”
Indications of improvements to students‟ social development were found in
teachers‟ reflections on students‟ ability to share objects, take turns, and avoid or
resolve conflicts with no teacher involvement. For example, “[there is] less
conflict in cases where specific students who have issues around anger
management have shown a tendency, in part from use of the bike, to avoid
asserting themselves aggressively toward other students.”
Finally, references to the stationary bike‟s impact on the learning environment
included comments such as “students can remain in class more, as they can go
on a bike rather than going for a walk” and “when they work while they are on
the bike with the portable table that they put on the handles, they are more
focused on what they are doing.”
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Perceived Outcomes of Bike Use: Challenges
When asked to rate the bikes as a source of distraction on a five-point scale,
teachers indicated that the bikes were generally not seen as a distraction M=1.82,
(SD = 0.95), ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), 3 (neutral).
Correlation analyses between scores on the distraction variable and three other
variables indicated a significant relationship: duration of bike in classroom;
frequency of student use; and perceived positive outcomes. The duration in
which the bike had been in its specific location was negatively correlated with
the perceived distraction-level of the bikes, R= -0.26, p<.01, suggesting that the
longer a bike had remained in its location, the less distracting it was perceived to
be. An independent samples t-test found a statistically significant difference
t(96)= 2.54, p<.01 in the mean scores of perceived distraction between
participants who had bikes for less than one year (M= 2.0, SD= .88) when
compared to those who had the bikes for one year or longer (M= 1.51, SD=.99).
It appears that teachers that have had the bike for one year or less perceived
them to be significantly more distracting than teachers that have had the bike for
one year or longer. Distraction was also significantly correlated with Frequency
of student use, R= -0.31, p <.01; more frequent bike use was related to lower
levels of perceived distraction. Not surprisingly, the level of the bike‟s
distraction was negatively correlated with the perceived positive outcomes
composite variable, R= -0.4, p <.01.
Nearly one quarter of teachers (23%) reported a situation in which a student
was unable to use the stationary bikes, and one third (29.3%) faced a situation in
which a student was reluctant or did not want to use the bikes. Explanations for
students‟ inability to use the bikes were classified into two main categories:
physical limitations of the student and inappropriate dress. Forty-two percent of
answers referenced situations in which a student was not able to use the
stationary bike because of physical limitations, such as the student‟s size, injury,
or disability. It is important to note, however, that physical disability did not
necessarily inhibit bike use. Indeed, teachers identified situations in which a
student with physical or other limitations still managed to “one little girl who
has a disability in a lower grade was really good on the bike. […] she loved it!”
Explanations about student reluctance to use the bikes were grouped into
three subcategories: the student did not like the bike; the bike was too difficult for the
student to use; and the student was afraid or socially intimidated. It appears that
“some students just don‟t like it, find it too hard, or [the bikes are] of no interest
to them.” Some students are hesitant to use the bikes, and others appear to be
afraid, e.g., “student was scared. Student may not feel that they will be
successful.” Some teachers reported that students may perceive the stationary
bikes as socially intimidating, and would prefer to avoid the unwanted attention
that using the bicycle attracts, e.g., “some students do not feel comfortable to
exercise in front of others, so they started off passing, but now most students use
it daily.”
Nearly half of the survey‟s respondents (49) answered an open-ended
question asking what other challenges they encountered due to stationary bike
integration. Participants‟ answers were categorized into three general themes:
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© 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
classroom management concerns, difficulties with the bike itself, and access challenges.
Classroom management concerns accounted for the largest percentage of the
reported challenges (76%), and included student misconduct, horseplay, and
inappropriate use of the bicycles, problems with turn-taking, bikes being used
during inappropriate times, and bikes being used to avoid work. Examples of
these behaviours include reports of “times that students are interrupting the
lesson to discuss who gets to use the bike” or instances of students “hogging the
bike”, and “disputes over who has the right to be on it.” A smaller number of
additional problems involved difficulties with the bicycle itself, including reports
that students cannot “do work on or read while they are biking”, and complaints
over the bike‟s tension knob not working, or wheels becoming squeaky with use.
The remaining comments reported access challenges, including not having
enough bikes in the school/classroom and wanting more, issues with the cost of
the bikes, and challenges encountered while fundraising for the equipment.
Solutions to Challenges
Participants were asked to share some of their solutions to address the
challenges that they reported. Forty percent responded. The majority of
responses (79%) addressed classroom-management challenges, suggesting things
like “students need to self-regulate the taking of turns”, and “having a sign-up
list has been helpful for some teachers in our school.” Teachers also discussed
the importance of explaining the purpose of the bikes to students, namely the
principles of self-regulation and how these relate to different students‟ needs.
One teacher asserted students should know “that fair doesn't always mean even.
Many of my students require the bike more than others.” Other teachers
stressed establishing clear expectations with students on the consequences that
might result from breaking guidelines by saying things like “stay firm and
consistent on the consequences.” Other proposed solutions to challenges
included using an open/closed sign for the bicycles to prevent their use during
inappropriate times, and providing safety/usage instructions.
A much smaller percentage of responses (13%) addressed access and
technical issues, and included suggestions on how many bikes a
school/classroom should have, fundraising tips, and ideas for how to modify
the bikes to make them better, e.g., “having more bikes (2-3) per class”; “the
community [should] get involved in fundraising efforts”; “a table top for
completing work”; or “building a frame/box in front of the bike to allow
students to place something so they can work/read while they bike”; and,
assembling a “small tool kit with some extra parts so that it can be fixed easily
and promptly” in case the bicycle malfunctions and requires repair.
Recommendations
When asked if they would recommend the implementation of stationary
bicycles to other teachers, 99% of respondents said they would and 38 teachers
gave a rationale. Favourable comments generally spoke to recommendations
based on the observed benefits related to physical exercise and self-regulation in
the classroom. Teachers suggested that the stationary bicycle provided students
with a convenient means of exercising and lead to an increased awareness of the
benefits of exercise. Teachers‟ comments also noted that the bicycles had a role
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© 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
in improving student focus, motivation, productivity, processing, calmness, and
well-being, for example, “I think it is a great way to teach students that even a
little bit of exercise has many benefits- helps with concentration and attention,
alleviates stress, gets rid of nervous energy, [and] is fun.” and “it's a no-brainer.
Kids need to move and the spin bike is a wonderful and sustainable strategy to
promote wellness, mind-body connections and self-awareness!” Teachers
suggested that “bikes help students regain focus and they can produce more
work and remain in the classroom while having a physical/emotional break.”,
and that the bikes are a “fantastic addition to the classroom. Self regulation and
exercise are huge benefits. Try sitting for five hours!” Overall, there was wide
agreement across answers that stationary bicycle use is “an outlet for kids”, and
that students generally “process better if they are moving.”
Discussion
When reviewing teachers‟ responses across a variety of survey questions, it
is apparent that the perceived effects of stationary bike integration were largely
positive, although the unique set of challenges posed by integration should not
be overlooked. Key reflections made by teachers included proposed solutions to
the challenges reported. One specific concern of integration of a new technology
or pedagogical approach is the distraction and impact due to its novelty. Results
suggest that this was a challenge that dissipated with time. The perceived
positive outcomes of bike use reinforced the importance of incorporating
learner-centred pedagogies to effectively support self-regulated use of stationary
bikes.
The study‟s 107 participants were a diverse group of teachers that used
stationary exercise bikes as participating members of Run for Life‟s SparksFly
program. Participants came from 8 different provinces/territories, a variety
neighbourhood types, worked in broadly different settings in which school and
class size varied widely, and taught different grades, ranging from Kindergarten
to Grade 12. The survey followed a mixed-methods design containing both
open and closed-ended questions. The collection of data by researchers
independent of participating schoolboards ensured that teachers were free from
any possible job-related repercussions, which allowed teachers to share both
positive and negative opinions of the SparksFly program and its impact.
The perceived benefits of stationary bike implementation on individual
students were captured in participants‟ scores on the perceived positive
outcomes variable and qualitative responses to open ended questions about bike
use and its impact on student development. Those outcomes were aspects of
self-regulated learning including enjoyment, sense of accomplishment,
relaxation, mental alertness, self-esteem and physical changes. All of the
perceived outcomes were seen as neutral to higher with the largest impact
related to enjoyment, relaxation and mental alertness. Physical changes were
scored lowest on average, more neutral than agreement, however. This is not
surprising as the average frequency and duration of bike use was limited. The
integration of stationary bike use was intended to capitalize on the connection
between physical activity and readiness to learn rather than having any great
impact on the level of physical fitness more generally. The bike use was one
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© 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
aspect of what were recognized as physically active learning environments.
Indeed, most teachers reported integrating other class-wide physical activity
routines in addition to the stationary bikes, and about half of those surveyed
used the bikes themselves.
Qualitative data analysis revealed that following the introduction of the
stationary bikes, teachers reported improvements in their students‟ physical,
cognitive, emotional, and social development, as well as benefits to the learning
environment. Some teachers‟ answers included perceived improvements in
students‟ physical development due to bike use, for example, “increased better
cardio”, “students biking to school”, and observations that the bike “helps
strengthen our students‟ gross motor development.”
Perceptions that bike use led to cognitive improvements were detailed as
increases in students‟ attention capacities, improvement in time-management
skills, and independent choice to take effective breaks from learning. The
reported benefits on students‟ emotional development included students‟ ability
to observe, reflect, and regulate their emotions. Students‟ social development
manifested in positive changes to students‟ ability to share objects, take turns,
and avoid or solve conflicts. Teachers identified an increase in students‟ ability
to recognize not only their need to self-regulate through the bike use but an
overall increase in empathy toward other students and their individual needs,
for example, “My students are very empathetic to students who need the bike in
a moment of distress or disruption.” Finally, references to improvements in the
learning environment included the ability to keep students in the learning
context and working while they took a physical break from sitting.
Despite the numerous benefits of stationary bike implementation as
indicated by teachers, the use of bikes in the classroom setting did pose a unique
set of challenges, including physical limitations and student reluctance to use the
stationary bikes; classroom management concerns; technical issues related to the
bike itself; access difficulties; and the bike‟s potential to distract students from
on-task behaviour. Although there was a range of scores related to perceived
amount of distraction, the bikes were not generally seen as a distraction. The
longer a bike remained in its location, the less distracting it was perceived to be.
Although, perceived positive outcomes were significantly predicted by several
variables, including intensity and frequency of use, the length of time that the
bike had been in the same location was not a significant predictor, suggesting
that positive outcomes may be seen right away. Teachers expressed that the
challenges posed by stationary bike implementation are most palpable during
the first few phases of the integration process, but lessen with the passing of
time. In other words, when students are exposed to a classroom with a
stationary bike for the first time, the bikes are extremely popular and it may
seem like every student wants a turn. The great demand for the bike can lead to
disruption and student conflict, especially when the bike is unregulated by the
teacher. The constant activity surrounding bikes during this introductory period
can be distracting for both teachers and students, and some teachers felt that
they needed to be proactive regarding student bicycle use during this period,
often coming up with creative ways to ensure students respectfully shared the
bicycle without interrupting the learning of others. Suggestions to counter the
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© 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
novelty effect that the bikes may elicit included having “discussions around it
and development of rules by and with the students.”
Qualitative responses regarding how bike use was regulated demonstrated
a spectrum of control from student-regulated to teacher-regulated and a
combination of both. According to respondents, as the novelty of this new
equipment faded, the bicycles became more available for students that would
benefit most from their use. Regulating students‟ bicycle use sometimes evolved
as the class became better acquainted with the bike and teachers relinquished
control. Some teachers initially chose to heavily regulate bike-use to allow every
student to have a turn. After bike-use became normalized, some teachers
lessened their control to a permission-based strategy in which students self-
identified their need to use the bikes and then asked the teacher for permission
to do so. Some teachers adjusted the rules so that bikes were used on a first-
come-first-serve basis, in which any student who felt the need to self-regulate by
using the stationary bicycle could do so without being a distraction. When the
bike is implemented with the intent to develop self-regulation in students, it is
important that teachers recognize and use pedagogical approaches that allow for
student choice and decision-making. Differentiated instruction becomes the
norm.
If students are instructed to use the bicycles with moderate to vigorous
intensity until they feel relaxed and ready to learn whenever they feel hyper,
angry, tired, anxious, or any other distracting emotion, they begin to actively
„monitor‟ their emotions and act on their self-evaluations. This mindfulness
helps to mobilize SRL when coupled with a strategy (i.e. stationary bike use)
intended to help mitigate the distracting emotions and lead to increased
learning. The stationary bike is there for any student to just „hop on‟ until they
become “calm, alert, and learning” (Shanker, 2012).
Three key findings from this study include:
 The most common challenge of implementing stationary bikes in the
classroom was the initial distraction. The distraction was limited,
however, and readily overcome through discussion and practice.
Introduction of the bike may have contributed to students‟ ability to
recognize individual learning needs.
 Teachers perceived a number of positive outcomes in relation to the
use of stationary bikes. The initial purpose of the bike, to improve
self-regulation leading to an increase in learning, was accomplished
on various levels, contributing to individual social, emotional, and
cognitive outcomes as well as an overall positive impact on the
classroom learning environment.
 The results of this study identified a spectrum of control around the
use of the bike, ranging from student-regulated to teacher-regulated.
The position of control along that spectrum has implications for the
level of student self-regulation.
Implications and future research
The positive outcomes and limited challenges identified in this study
suggest that use of stationary bikes in classrooms is one potential strategy for
supporting self-regulated learning across grades and contexts. The
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© 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
implementation of the bike should be part of an overall pedagogical approach to
supporting self-regulated learning and should be treated as any other emerging
instructional tool. Teacher knowledge, examples of success, easy access, and
support are critical to ensuring a positive experience (Mueller, Wood,
Willoughby, DeYoung, Ross, & Specht, 2008). Although the teachers in this
study were perhaps „champions for the cause‟ and included physical activity in
other aspects of their classrooms, the findings of this study offer evidence to
support a broader implementation of stationary bikes as a tool for self-regulated
learning.
Although the current study included a survey of teacher perceptions rather
than direct measurement of student outcomes, the findings and implications are
a significant addition to the literature examining self-regulated learning and the
impact of physical activity on learning. Wendel, Benden, Zhao and Jeffrey
(2016) identified positive results of stand-biased desks versus seated classrooms
on student BMI increases after two years of intervention. Future research that
includes extended intervention projects and measurement of actual student
learning outcomes following use of the bikes will expand on the evidence base
and provide specific support for successful implementation.
References
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control? The Globe and Mail.
Berg, K. (2010). Justifying physical education based on neuroscience evidence. Journal
of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 81(3), 24-46.
Hillman, C. H., Pontifex, M. B., Raine, L. B., Castelli, D. M., Hall, E. E., & Kramer, A. F.
(2009). The effect of acute treadmill walking on cognitive control and academic
achievement in preadolescent children. Neuroscience, 159(3), 1044–1054.
Hillman, C.H., Snook, E.M., & Jerome, G.J. (2003). Acute cardiovascular exercise and
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Mahar, M. T., Murphy, S. K., Rowe, D. A., Golden, J., Shields, T., & Raedeke, T. D. (2006).
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Exercise, 38 (12), 2086-94.
Mitton, P. (Writer), & Barth, W. (Director). (2016, March). Classroom stationary bikes
encourage kids to blow off steam while learning [Television series episode]. In
Kalbfleisch, C., Nasser, S., & Pagel, J. (Producers), The Current. Toronto, Ontario:
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.
Mueller, J., Wood, E., Willoughby, T., DeYoung, T., Ross, C., & Specht, J. (2008).
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Ontario Ministry of Education. (2005). Resource Guide. Daily physical activity in schools.
Grades 4 to 6. Ontario Ministry of Education.
Pontifex, M. B., Hillman, C. H., Fernhall, B., Thompson, K. M., & Valentini, T. A. (2009).
The effect of acute aerobic and resistance exercise on working memory. Medicine
& Science in Sports & Exercise,41(4), 927-934.
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Pontifex, M. B., Saliba, B. J., Raine, L. B., Picchietti, D. L., & Hillman, C. H. (2013).
Exercise improves behavioral, neurocognitive, and scholastic performance in
children with ADHD. The Journal of Pediatrics, 162(3), 543–551.
Ratey, J. (2008). Spark: The Revolutionary New Science of Exercise and the Brain. New York:
Little, Brown and Co.
Senick, J. (2017, January). Saskatoon teachers use stationary bikes to help students
concentrate. Global News.
Shanker, S. G. (2012). Calm, Alert and Learning: Classroom Strategies for Self-Regulation.
Toronto: Pearson.
Shanker S. G. (2012) Emotional Regulation through the Ages, in Foolen A., Ludtke U.M.,
Racine T.P. & Slatev J. (Eds) Moving Ourselves, Moving Others: motion and
emotion in intersubjectivity, consciousness and language, pp. 105–138.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Sibley, B. A., & Beilock, S. L. (2007). Exercise and working memory: An individual
differences investigation. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 29(6), 783-
791.
Stattlesmair, J., & Ratey, J. (2009). Physically active play and cognition: An academic
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Thomson, A. (2016, March). How Canadian classrooms are being transformed by a
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Tomporowski, P. D., Lambourne, K., & Okumra, M. S. (2011). Physical activity
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Preventive Medicine, 52, s3-9.
Tranter, D., & Kerr, D. (2016). Understanding Self-Regulation: Why stressed Students
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Van Praag, H. (2009). Exercise and the brain: Something to chew on. Trends in
Neurosciences, 32(5), 283- 290.
Wendel, M. L., Benden, M. E., Zhao, H., & Jeffrey, C. (2016). Stand-biased versus seated
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 29-37, March 2017.
Expanding Areas of Influence at Azores
University: Virtual Campus, Regional Clusters
and Points of Presence
Rogerio L. Roth
University of the Azores
Ponta Delgada, Portugal
Abstract. The tripolarity of the University of the Azores, characterised
by three campuses and facilities has been shown to be economically
unviable, socially unjust and at the same time insufficient to allow the
attendance of all nine islands of the archipelago. The location in an
outermost region of the European Union does not guarantee a positive
discrimination. The solution might lie in a paradigm shift, based on a
decapolar structure and through partnerships establish regional clusters,
points of presence and a virtual campus.
Keywords: regional clusters; points of presence; paradigm shifts; virtual
campus
Introduction
The University of the Azores (UAC) is a Portuguese public institution, created
within the framework of regionalization of higher education.
It is important to bear in mind that the issue of insularity in the region involves
specific solutions that fit to the geographical, economic and social realities of the
Azores archipelago, located in the middle of the northern hemisphere of the
Atlantic Ocean.
source: http://www.visitazores.com/en
source: http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A7ores
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© 2017 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
The issue of insularity provides a tripolar character to the region, with poles in
the cities of Ponta Delgada, Angra do Heroísmo and Horta, which gave rise to
the present Azorean campuses.
In this paper I focus on analyzing the tripolar physical campus model used by
UAC, analyze similar institutions and propose a new model of expansion, based
on regional clusters, points of presence and a virtual campus.
The paper draws on findings from the research “Implementation Strategies and
Development of an Open and Distance Education System for the University of
the Azores” (Roth, 2013), funded by the European Social Fund. The main
objective of this research was to observe the recent events related to likely
paradigm shift in the educational area and propose to UAC the adoption of
solutions that can, at the same time, correct implementations already carried out
in previous experiments and respond to these new challenges.
After 36 years since its creation, the University continues to face challenges,
particularly arising from the inexorable process of globalization – phenomenon
started in the 15th century with the era of Portuguese discoveries, of the
knowledge-based society and the policy effects of chronic underfunding of
public higher education in Portugal.
However, as we’ll see, UAC has been unable to serve the entire archipelago with
the structure defined in 1976. This concept is being questioned today. The latest
concern is with old theories about the functioning and costs of the tripolar
infrastructure. There are those who are once again defending the centralization
of UAC on a single island, claiming that the three infrastructures is that it
hinders the financial management of the academy (Lima, 2012).
Would it be a priority to invest in education in times of crisis? Probably not...
Would it be possible to have more and better education for all, without further
costs? Certainly…
Referring to Portugal, Crato (2012) says that: “the greatest debt that a country
can generate is the perpetuation of ignorance”. However Morgado (2011),
previously in a self-criticism, recognizes the difficulties faced in the country:
“think and talk is easy. But roll up their sleeves and put hands to work is
something else. We are a speaking society”.
The analysis shows that the current structure does not serve physically the
whole archipelago forcing the movement of students and professors (Roth,
2013). In addition, it is impossible (in the current model), to have the pretension
to meet the natural demands (geographical vocation), services, industry,
interests (public and private) and personal choices of each citizen who does not
need to be limited to any demands, initiatives and existing course offerings
locally and always will determine the movement or to another island, or to the
mainland or overseas, often a path without return – many azoreans are going to
study elsewhere and they do not come back to the Azores (exodus). However,
this can be bypassed.
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© 2017 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
Nowadays, it is possible to offer the “world” – without the need to leave home,
city, island or region – through partnerships and agreements with other national
and international institutions to offer and develop different kinds of courses,
targeting to specific needs, enabling multiple certifications and joint
development.
In recent years UAC has missed the train in relation to various demands, and
that applies in relation to e-learning, the lack of struggle against resistance of
professors in the use of technology; the lack of attention to migratory diversity of
the Azores, the lack of support to students in mobility; the lack of approximation
of departments – that can be considered watertight areas that hardly
communicate with each other, compete among themselves and hardly
collaborate on joint projects; the failure to reply to the invitation to participate at
OpenCourseWare (OCW) Universia and the non-participation in calls that could
improve their infrastructure, reducing the effects of insularity, effective presence
in all the islands, reduction of maintenance costs, increased visibility, external
projection and internationalization by finding new customers outside its
surroundings (Roth, 2013).
Cabral (2012) points out the future challenges, doubts and related issues that the
azoreans themselves also seem to have doubts: “…our academy will also have to
make an effort to restructure and adapt to the new reality of these times”. “…it is
necessary that the university engage more with the society, in order we realised
and be involved in supporting its operation. The university should clarify, to all
of taxpayers, which is the strategy it intends to take for their survival, and how
to solve numerous problems of management, exploitation and investments; for
which we keep hearing questions and major concerns”.
Medeiros (2013) recognizes these difficulties, stressing that “the University of the
Azores to become a true university of the 21st century would have to innovate
and transform themselves in order to follow these new concepts introduced by
the Europe 2020 strategy. These concepts will require a new dynamic only
possible by introducing new mobilizing structures, new working methods, new
ways of dealing with the community, new strategies in the fields of scientific
production, new capabilities to mobilize other audiences, new axes for social
and technological transformation and new ideas to intervene in society that
continues to see the university as the main promoter of qualification, innovation
and creativity”.
Several Portuguese universities are betting on their own projects. Moreover, we
cannot deny the role of the universities of Aveiro and Minho which are among
the most technological universities of the country.
http://www.ua.pt/
http://www.uminho.pt/
The pursuit of national references to support the implementation of projects
mediated by technologies usually refers to the Portuguese Open University
(UAb), a distance education public university, created in 1988.
http://www.uab.pt/
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Vol 16 No 3 - March 2017

  • 1. International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research p-ISSN:1694-2493 e-ISSN:1694-2116IJLTER.ORG Vol.16 No.3
  • 2. PUBLISHER London Consulting Ltd District of Flacq Republic of Mauritius www.ijlter.org Chief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of Editorial Board Prof. Cecilia Junio Sabio Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka Prof. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard Dr Marius Costel Esi Dr Katarzyna Peoples Dr Christopher David Thompson Dr Arif Sikander Dr Jelena Zascerinska Dr Gabor Kiss Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano Dr Barry Chametzky Dr Giorgio Poletti Dr Chi Man Tsui Dr Alexander Franco Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak Dr Afsaneh Sharif Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the dis- semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, ed- ucators, teachers, trainers and other practition- ers on all aspects of education to publish high quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publi- cation in the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research are selected through precise peer-review to ensure quality, originality, appropriateness, significance and readability. Authors are solicited to contribute to this journal by submitting articles that illus- trate research results, projects, original surveys and case studies that describe significant ad- vances in the fields of education, training, e- learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit pa- pers to this journal through the ONLINE submis- sion system. Submissions must be original and should not have been published previously or be under consideration for publication while being evaluated by IJLTER.
  • 3. VOLUME 16 NUMBER 3 March 2017 Table of Contents Multicultural Problem-based Learning Approaches Facilitate ESP Language Acquisition .........................................1 Diane Boothe, DPA, Melissa Caspary, Ph.D., and Clifton D. Wickstrom, Ph.D. Learning in Motion: Teachers‟ Perspectives on the Impact of Stationary Bike Use in the Classroom ..................... 15 Julie Lynn Mueller, Amanada Wudarzewski and Yoad Avitzur Expanding Areas of Influence at Azores University: Virtual Campus, Regional Clusters and Points of Presence 29 Rogerio L. Roth Can You Tell Me Why: Two Extreme Cases in Translation Learning Results ............................................................. 38 Yvonne Ying-Ya Wen Can Student Engagement in Online Courses Predict Performance on Online Knowledge Surveys?....................... 73 Bernard BAHATI, Uno Fors, Matti Tedre Effects of Computerized Cognitive Training on Working Memory in a School Setting ............................................ 88 Tessy T. Pumaccahua, M.A., Eugene H. Wong, Ph.D. and Dudley J. Wiest, Ph.D. How Cooperating Teachers and Interns Understand “Teaching for a Better World” During Internship ............. 105 Twyla Salm, PhD and Val Mulholland, PhD
  • 4. 1 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 1-14, March 2017 Multicultural Problem-based Learning Approaches Facilitate ESP Language Acquisition Diane Boothe, DPA Boise State University, College of Education Boise, Idaho, USA Melissa Caspary, Ph.D. Georgia Gwinnett College, School of Science and Technology Lawrenceville, Georgia, USA Clifton D. Wickstrom, Ph.D. Managing Director, Educational Pathways Round Rock, Texas, USA Abstract. This paper discusses language teaching that incorporates Problem-based Learning (PBL), which will actively engage English for Specific Purposes (ESP) learners from diverse cultural backgrounds. When English language students who are native Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) are a portion of the learning group, it introduces an added level of complexity to the instructional design. The instructional designer is confronted with an ESP within ESOL dynamic, which becomes one of the most significant impacting variables in the learning environment. This topic will be approached utilizing examples appropriate for a variety of cultures and ESP content areas including engineering, technology and the sciences. The methods described, however, have equal value in other disciplines with unique English language components. The paper will explore use of PBL in a multi- cultural ESP situation. It is being developed with the purpose and objectives of including an overview of the key strategies for success in language acquisition focusing on ESP, and outlining exemplar programs that can actively engage learners in defined subject-matter contexts. We begin with the initial notions of PBL in ESOL, and ESP, as separate methodological arenas, and then the integration of the two (multi- cultural situation) yields the PBL of ESP within an ESOL environment. Introduction There is an adage in the contemporary American education community that seems most appropriate in the situation we address in this presentation. It is: “To teach them, you have to be able to reach them.” In the multi-cultural ESP environment, a language teacher must confront the confounding complexities imposed by a largely ESOL student population. Reaching that student group is a challenge that is difficult enough when teaching simple conversational English.
  • 5. 2 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. It becomes considerably more imposing when ESP is the language being taught. As journal articles have noted, legal and medical English have an almost exclusively Latinate character, which contributes to an easier understanding and quicker grasp by those ESP students whose mother tongue is a romance language. But other ESP focus areas may not offer so easy a path. This is particularly true in the science and engineering disciplines that have emerged in the late 19th and 20th centuries. The rapid development and global deployment of these science, technology, engineering and mathematical (STEM) disciplines has led to the accumulation of new words in the English lexicon that are simply “grabbed” from the linguistic environment from which they were first observed. Thus the ESP vocabulary of these disciplines is, while not “filled”, at least sprinkled with terms that need specific explanation at first usage to provide clear understanding of the term, even to the native English speaker. ESP researchers in Asian nations have noted particular difficulties in this regard in recent publications (Hoa & Mai, 2016; Liu, 2016: and Banditvilai, 2016), as will be discussed in greater detail below. The recent literature also contains methodological suggestions for increasing the effectiveness of ESP learning, which will also be highlighted (Privas-Breaute, 2016; Kleanthos and Cordozo, 2016; and Wu, 2014) The Eclectic Character of English Spanish and French have formal bodies that "authorize" the addition of words to their officially recognized lexicon, which insist on consistency with internal phonetic protocols for the formal inclusion of a word into the languages. German often adds words by combination of existing simpler German words into more complex structures that are then conjoined to generate a more complex word form, similar to a phrase, which expresses the meaning. The English language is primarily Germanic and Latinate in its origins as any scan through the etymological segments of the Oxford English Dictionary will illustrate. But, the near global reach of the British Empire led to the early accumulation of many words in that lexicon not of European origins. This is not a new phenomenon. The word "khaki", for example, is Hindi (from Sanskrit) meaning “dust” or “dusty in appearance”. It came into English during the Raj in the 18th and 19th Century to describe the tan colored cotton field uniforms issued to local troops of the British colonial army elements. It ultimately became the common term in English for any tan hard finish cotton fabric, or even pants made from such fabric. When one begins to teach ESP, you observe these types of terms frequently, especially from science or engineering research and practice in non- European areas. Where a local population has a term that describes an observed item, phenomenon or event very specifically, that term has been incorporated directly into English. The English vocabulary of the biological sciences is literally filled with common plant and animal names used in the regions where they were first identified. Thus we find baobab and saguaro, orangutan and coatimundi in our lexicon along with violet and lily of the valley, and lion and catfish. But the phenomenon is not unique to biology. Several examples will follow to illustrate this point. This is in addition to English use of Italian,
  • 6. 3 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Spanish, French or German words, as they are, without any anglification. Thus “portico”, "arroyo", "creme de la creme", and "zeitgeist" are in our dictionary, and common usage instead of, or in addition to, a distinct English term with the same meaning. We just grab the term, and use it rather than "create" an English word that fits the “formal structures” of the language. To illustrate the pattern of simple inclusion of non-European origin terms described above, as relates specifically to the sciences, one need only ask from whence did the nouns “monsoon”, “haboob”, “monadnock”, “alkali”, “taiga” and “fynbos” make their way into the ESP lexicons of meteorology, geology and ecology? They are Hindi, Arabic, and a colloquial New England geographic element, Egyptian Arabic, Russian and Afrikaans, respectively. It is easy to see from these examples that a glossary at least, or a dictionary at best, is an essential tool in any teaching of the ESP for the newer parts of the science realm. So long as the terms in question are nouns, the situation is relatively manageable, with a good glossary, without any etymological components required. When we begin to incorporate English words that have identical spelling for their noun and verb forms, or where the past tense of a verb is also used as an adjective, for example, the situation becomes far more complicated. Two examples come immediately to mind. The first is “structure”. As a verb it means “to construct”, “to build” or “to arrange”. As a noun it means “an object that is built or constructed”. The past tense of the verb, “structured” can also be employed as an adjective, as in “a structured vocabulary”. A far more complex example is the word “stuff”. As a verb it means “to fill, frequently to capacity or beyond”. As a noun, it is a plural collective, referring to any assemblage of items, without specific description. To further complicate the usage of “stuff”, the past tense of the verb, “stuffed” is also used, at least colloquially, as an adjective, frequently in cooking terms, to imply an object with a cavity that is filled with other material, as in a “stuffed goose”. Thus we see that the eclectic, complex character of English makes it more difficult for the conversational ESOL learner, and the specialized ESP learner in the Sciences is frequently, confronted with vocabulary not of traditional Germanic or Latinate origins, adding to that difficulty. Addressing these issues requires a very carefully planned approach where problem-based learning methodologies can be employed to overcome these inherent complexities of contemporary English, particularly within the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) environments. Problem-based Learning (PBL), an Explanation PBL has its origins in medical education in Canada, and thus has roots in a discipline where ESP is an integral part of the educational process. It quickly attracted attention and usage in the English-speaking medical education community, and from there spread into post-secondary settings in the United States and other Anglo-phone nations. Problem-Based Learning is a flourishing approach to learning that is extremely useful in promoting critical and analytical thinking, and in addressing the rapid technological changes and dynamic workplace of the 21st Century (Nicolaides, 2012). PBL is founded on an unconventional pedagogical model when viewed alongside the conventional
  • 7. 4 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. didactic one and it offers greater benefits to the quality of student learning (Greening, 1998). The similarities to the case study methodologies employed in the business education community were also quickly recognized. The advantages of PBL over the case method were quickly recognized, since the frequently complex case development process could be avoided by focusing on an unstructured problem in the abstract, without the need of the detailed background, setting and circumstance development that cases involve. This is also the case relating to the science field and further attention is being devoted to exploring active learning methodologies for language learners in the scientific curriculum (Caspary & Boothe, 2016). Problem-based learning is defined as “an approach that challenges students to learn through engagement in a real problem. It is a format that simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem- solvers confronted with an ill-structured situation that simulates the kind of problems they are likely to face in complex professional circumstances” (Stover, 1998). Gvardjancic notes (2001) “PBL emphasizes the learning part of the teaching-learning process. It is based on the idea that learners learn what is meaningful to them and learn better if they feel in control of what they are learning.” “The philosophy behind Problem-based learning is that knowledge and skills are acquired through a progressive sequence of contextual problems, together with learning materials and the support of the instructor” (eLearning Industry, 2014). PBL is not new. Stepien and Gallagher suggest that, “it has been a major success since the 1970s. PBL turns the instructional setting topsy-turvy, shifting the learning environment from a teacher centered to a learner centered one. In the place of covering the curriculum, learners probe deeply into issues searching for connections, grappling with complexity, and using knowledge to fashion solutions” (Stepien & Gallagher, 1993). Yew and Goh (2016) focus on the process and impact on learning provided by Problem-based learning, and examine its effectiveness concluding that “studies comparing the relative effectiveness of PBL are generally consistent in demonstrating its superior efficacy for longer- term knowledge retention.”According to Stover (1998) PBL “will increase retention of knowledge, help students transfer concepts to new problems, enhance students’ interest in the content and enhance self-directed learning”. Realistic problems are the key to the use of the PBL model. But what are the characteristics of good problems? Duch (1996) lists some of the characteristics of good problems as: 1. “An effective problem must first engage students’ interest and motivate them to probe for deeper understanding of the concepts being introduced. 2. Good problems require students to make decisions or judgments based on facts, logic and/or rationalization. 3. Cooperation from all members of the student group is necessary in order to work effectively through a good problem.
  • 8. 5 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 4. The initial questions in the problem should have one or more of the following characteristics; they should be: open-ended connected to previously learned knowledge controversial issues that will elicit divers opinions. 5. The content objectives of the course should be incorporated into the problems, connecting previous knowledge to new concepts and connecting new knowledge to concepts in other courses and/or disciplines.” Ron Purser (2010), a faculty member in the graduate management program at the San Francisco State University notes, “Problem-based learning is student-centered. PBL makes a fundamental shift--from a focus on teaching to a focus on learning. The process is aimed at using the power of authentic problem solving to engage students and enhance their learning and motivation.” There are several unique aspects that define the PBL approach: 1. “Learning takes place within the contexts of authentic tasks, issues, and problems--that are aligned with real-world concerns. 2. In a PBL course, students and the instructor become co-learners, co- planners, co-producers, and co-evaluators as they design, implement, and continually refine their curricula. 3. The PBL approach is grounded in solid academic research on learning and on the best practices that promote it. This approach stimulates students to take responsibility for their own learning, since there are few lectures, no structured sequence of assigned readings, and so on. 4. PBL is unique in that it fosters collaboration among students, stresses the development of problem solving skills within the context of professional practice, promotes effective reasoning and self-directed learning, and is aimed at increasing motivation for life-long learning.” PBL is a multilevel approach to learning that incorporates relevance and complexity while strengthening critical and analytical thinking, and provides an opportunity for self-assessment and continuous improvement. PBL guides exploration, and students who learn using this model develop a sense of self- esteem and ownership for their work. Through the use of this model, opportunities abound for linguistic development coupled with acquisition of content area knowledge. Scott (2014) focuses on a multilevel analysis of Problem-based learning design characteristics and “proposes and tests a multilevel of PBL design characteristics reporting findings that reinforce the importance of problem design characteristics and effective team facilitation while raising new questions about team-level characteristics.” The key to the success of English language acquisition through PBL is to utilize selected constructive problems purposefully designed to address the desired learning outcomes. These problems are often influenced by social and contextual factors. Most students already possess conceptual knowledge in their native language. Cummins (2000) states: “Conceptual knowledge developed in
  • 9. 6 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. one language helps to make input in the other language comprehensible.” Careful lesson planning is necessary in terms of language learning and content knowledge. When using the PBL model, content is introduced in the context of real world problems. The learners’ acquisition of knowledge is achieved through a combination of learning strategies that are self-directed, independent, and collaborative, while also emphasizing communication skills and providing ongoing reinforcement. Although the sources of problems and the contexts for their classroom use may vary, PBL has common features: problems should engage students’ interest and motivate learning, require students to develop a line of reasoning that is backed by evidence, be complex enough to motivate participation of a group of students rather than just a single individual, be open-ended enough at the outset to allow participation by all students, incorporate the learning objectives of the course, and allow for many legitimate paths to a single resolution (Duch, 1996). Problem-based Learning in an ESOL Environment Kosel (2002) points out that use of PBL is relatively new in the field of language teaching and learning. According to Gvarsjancic (2001), the teaching approach was introduced with the desire to integrate language and content study to facilitate autonomous learning. He contends that the idea to use PBL in language learning was developed by a Leonardo da Vinci pilot project for the year 1999/2000 entitled Teaching English for Technical Purposes—TENTEC. Gvardjancic (2001) says the following about the results: “The results of the project showed that was especially appropriate for teaching languages across the curriculum for some reason. Firstly, there is the question of motivation. ESP teachers sometimes find it difficult to motivate their technically or professionally oriented students for language learning. Even carefully designed curricula, which follow needs analysis, do not always meet the real interests of young student population. Updated textbooks soon become boring and obsolete since new information is easily accessible on the internet. So, a real-life problem raises motivation. Secondly, and closely connected with the question of motivation, is the significance of teaching languages across the curriculum. Languages at tertiary level are often treated as second- rate subjects. This situation is reflected in students’ attitude towards language as a faculty subject which they consider a necessary evil but not linked to what they believe to be their genuine study program. This situation can be changed. Working closely with “subject teachers”, language specialist becomes involved with the faculty programmes, while the students feel they can combine their professional knowledge and their knowledge of language”. Kosel (2002) enumerates the following as some of the advantages of PBL approach in teaching English across the curriculum:
  • 10. 7 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 1. “A real problem raises motivation, much more than a preselected sequence of information from a course book. 2. In the model, students can integrate their professional knowledge and their knowledge of English. 3. The model makes them better equipped with functional skills needed for their professional careers and thus makes them more competitive on the job market. 4. Individual and social learning are combined. 5. English is learnt while doing something else, which goes together with the slogan “Learn by Doing.” Problem-based learning can be used to actively engage learners and bridge the gap between English language learners and their subject matter. Methodology rooted in inquiry can be particularly effective for teaching science and mathematics (Stoddart et al., 2002), and can enhance comprehension for primary grade learners up through the specialized focus of higher education coursework. In PBL, students are asked to apply a newly acquired skill set to a real life problem, where the students are the active centers of learning and the instructors serve as the facilitators. This educational model can help to communicate relevance in science and engineering disciplines which are plagued with a stigma that dictates these subjects should be difficult and daunting. The PBL paradigm asks students to take on an active role in their education, where the learning becomes everyone’s responsibility. In Polanyi’s (1966) definitions of explicit and tacit learning, explicit knowledge is defined as transmittable by formal, systematic language and tacit learning refers to knowledge attained through action. For students struggling with language acquisition, tacit learning, which is grounded in experimentation and experience, is the optimal mode for gaining expertise in a given subject. It is recognized that current educational policies and practices do not support desired outcomes with English language learners (Lee, 2005). By providing students with an inquiry-based approach for solving real-world problems, students working hard to gain proficiency in English speaking and literacy can gain understanding in a discipline through performance. “When students are driving the problem posing and decision making, it has been found that these inquiry-based methods personalize the project, increase relevance, and create ownership” (Johnson and Kean, 1992). The following illustrations from the world of praxis are good examples. At the elementary school level, PBL was used in the creation of an outdoor classroom in Athens, Georgia. Students were charged with the task of creating a flexible outdoor classroom space. The students were asked to participate in every part of the implementation process, from brainstorming the design, through the execution of the project, and finally with the development of a curriculum around the conceived environment. A range of kindergarten through fifth grade students were taken to the proposed outdoor classroom site
  • 11. 8 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. and then asked to imagine their ideal outdoor learning environment. They had the opportunity to illustrate these thoughts and share them with a Master’s of Landscape Architecture student at the University of Georgia. The graduate student then took the student designs and compiled their ideas into a conceptual plan. The students assisted in the grading and planting of the site, as well as engineering a rain garden with French drains, a bog, a brick pathway, and retaining walls. The planting and installation of over 40 different native perennial plant species ensured a botanical wealth of learning opportunities for future classroom participants. The service-learning component of the project provided equitable learning opportunities where language barriers could be crossed through student collaboration toward a common goal. This creation of the outdoor classroom required elementary students to make a personal investment in their education and into the project, where they were more likely to use their support network of parents, teachers, friends and the community to help them meet the goals of the project. English language learners who participated in the project were given a cooperative learning environment to strengthen peer relationships. The hands-on nature of the project created a sense of ownership among project participants and catered to a wide range of skill and ability levels. The problem-based approach took the focus out of the lecture-based classroom and into an environment where learning involved doing, and ESOL students experienced a rich opportunity to develop specialized language skills in an applied setting. In an example from higher education, master’s students in the College of Environment and Design at the University of Georgia assisted in the creation of a master plan for the State Botanical Garden of Georgia. These students brought together skills from the fields of geography, archeology, architecture, art, horticulture, and plant biology and worked as a dynamic and collaborative whole toward addressing the infrastructure problems of an entire institution and anticipating future needs of the facilities. English language learners in the group found themselves on equitable footing with other members of the group. Any language challenges students faced were resolved through the give and take of peer interaction, where shortcomings in one area were matched with a display of skill in other areas. The students were called on to demonstrate their proficiency with technology through the use of mapping software, their skill in design, and a competency at representing the conceptual plan in presentations to garden staff. These project requirements all reinforced specialized language acquisition for English language learners without drawing unwanted attention to individual deficiency or necessitating abstract language acquisition techniques. Instead of being allowed to go unattended in a classroom instructional setting, each student’s needs were addressed in the light of achieving a common goal. A new program aimed at improving international student performance is now being offered to students at one United States university. Golden Gate University (GGU) in San Francisco, California, is offering a specialized English language program. The GGU Preparation in Language and University Studies (PLUS) program has been designed specifically for ESOL students, who have limited speaking and writing skills, to participate in a collaborative process to improve their English proficiency. GGU has a large Asian international student population, with students from Mongolia, South Korea, Japan, China and
  • 12. 9 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Taiwan, needing to increase their proficiency in written and spoken English. PLUS is designed to encourage students to work in collaborative sessions, geared to solving common problems associated with the business curriculum, in which most students are enrolled. The program has a remarkably high 80-85% success rate as reported by Karin Fischer (2011) in her Chronicle of Higher Education article on PLUS. Focus on STEM ESP As noted above, the eclectic character of English has added numerous words to the lexicon with origins remote from the language’s Western European roots. This phenomenon is evident throughout the language, and has been of particular impact in the sciences, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) communities, as they become increasingly global in character, and have begun to rely upon English as a common medium of information exchange. The teaching of English as a “foreign language” has reached global proportions, with special schools teaching ESOL appearing literally in every corner of the planet. The demand for teachers of ESOL has increased dramatically at the same time. What has become increasingly evident is that traditionally trained ESOL teachers may not be able to fully prepare non-English speakers in the STEM fields. This issue has been commented upon as applies to engineering students in Saudi Arabia (Alqahtani, 2015, p93), Taiwan (Wu, 2014, p122), and Viet Nam (Hoa and Mai, 2016, p155), and may be generalized as particularly true in Asian countries, where vocabulary issues and passive learning styles impede ESOL learning situations. Boothe and Vaughn (2011) note that, often, lecture in STEM fields is difficult for English language learners to follow coherently. They become lost in the dialogue that may be too fast paced for them, and thus have little opportunity for reinforcement of language skills. This is at least partially explained by the increasing use of specialized, discipline specific, vocabularies within the various fields. In addition, the traditional language teaching methods have proven to be less than effective in these fields because of the need to successfully build student facility in these specialized English vocabularies. Contemporary researchers have proposed numerous methods to overcome these problems. These include the avatar/spect-actor process proposed by Privas- Beaute (2016, p40-52), corpus building as proposed by Wu (2014, p120-127), blended learning as proposed by Banditvilai (2016, p220-229) and collaborative vocabulary building through blogging as outlined by Kleanthos and Cordozo (2016, p225-229), among others. It is our proposal that the use of PBL methodologies, as outlined above, and especially those proven to have positive impact in other ESOL arenas, may be of particular utility in building ESP proficiency among non-English speakers within the STEM communities. Integration: PBL of ESP within an ESOL environment, Why and how? The authors contend that it is crucial for PBL to be infused throughout ESP strategies and learning activities. Teamwork and collaboration are the keys to the majority of workplace endeavors and professionals are being challenged to inspire original and critical thinking. Innovation and creativity thrive among settings where employees and learners in other venues can move forward and
  • 13. 10 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. achieve in their area of expertise supported by ESP achievement that fits the task at hand. As English language skills and communication improves, the tools and support are in place for impressive outcomes. Krashen (1981) advocates the use of a natural approach to strengthen new language acquisition. PBL supports his research and surpasses traditional language acquisition methodologies. Students are required to make connections as group communication is strengthened. By applying language skills to the workplace, students develop survival skills for the working environment, increase their workforce marketability, and prepare themselves for lifelong learning. The PBL model ensures that language skills are strengthened by experience with a broader scope of disciplines at the same time. “Collaboration and hands-on learning will lower the affective filters that Krashen cautions will deter students from successful language learning.” By combining language with new professional content knowledge using PBL, language skills are reinforced through group dynamics, workplace reality, and content area knowledge. Language learning and logical thinking are linked to future endeavors and the students’ fields of work. Flexibility and improvement of quality and achievement will be realized when an opportunity to incorporate ESP learning and instruction is supported through proven reinforcement activities that actively engage participants. There is a significant need to strengthen English language skills, recalibrate expectations, and better position native English speakers and professionals who are employed in English language settings. Expertise in their discipline is greatly appreciated, yet the greatest positive impact is realized when ESP is successfully coupled with performance in their occupation. The result is a significant shift in workplace expectations and needs. PBL makes the adjustments to collaborative and innovative activities more workable. English language learning, solutions to problems, and innovative advancements are realized simultaneously. Coupling strong subject matter and language learning strategies eliminates disconnects between content knowledge advancements in the workplace and English language competency challenges. The greatest positive impact in both areas is apparent as long as PBL activities are properly aligned to the learner’s occupation. On the assessment side, gains will be evident and incremental successes will be enhanced, not just one time, but in an on-going and increasing basis throughout the process as we seek solutions for balancing and restructuring ESP and workplace endeavors. Specific experiences with PBL (Kaufman, et al, 1989) and meta-analyses of outcomes (Albanese and Mitchell, 1993) from PBL curricula in the medical school context have shown that content learning in PBL matches that in a traditional curriculum. Additional outcomes in PBL include greater retention of knowledge and greater satisfaction with the educational experience. When language accommodations are no longer required, additional time and energy will be available for implementation of greater workplace skills requirements. A program combining PBL and ESP strives to strengthen accomplishments of employers and employees alike, and enhances strong teamwork with an emphasis on creativity and innovation. As professionals are
  • 14. 11 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. walking down the situational paths relevant to the environment in which they work, they can acquire new knowledge and language proficiency simultaneously. Employing PBL and ESP strategies that change the context in which we reach educational and occupational investments will result in significant accomplishments and gains in both areas. Examples from the International Community Globally, examples abound of the employment of PBL methodologies to increase ESP facility. The country of Korea is rapidly adapting PBL to the field of ESP in the information age. They are striving to challenge competitors and are promoting improvement of educational quality and enhancement of accessibility using PBL in the workplace, cyber-culture, and the English language classroom. At universities and in corporate business settings, English is becoming the key to advancement, rising in importance over seniority and subject area/discipline specific education. For example, securing a position as a flight attendant is a highly competitive and coveted accomplishment. Recruitment events draw hundreds of applicants. English skills and a university education are required along with grooming and excellent social skills. In fact, academies called hagwons are springing up to prepare aspiring applicants and provide PBL opportunities with a strong focus on ESP. There is an abundance of math and science majors in Korea who are interested in securing teaching positions in the public schools. Teaching is a respected occupation in Korea and jobs are highly competitive. One reason for this is that there is a high level of job security until the mandatory retirement age of 65, and teachers receive tenure during their first year on the job. However, English competence is in significant need, and although coursework is offered, excellent English teachers with clear pronunciation and speaking competence are not available in the quantities necessary to meet the need. As a result, English courses are often taught by Korean professors who are limited in their English acquisition because they, too, were taught by Korean professors who do not have optimum English language competency. It is interesting to note that exchange programs are growing that focus on bringing Korean teachers to the United States to accept difficult to fill math and science positions. This requires at least two years in English language pre-service preparation at US universities in order to meet the qualifications of both content and pedagogy. The necessary government visas need to be obtained to ensure that this is successful. A large part of the pre-professional training will focus on PBL and activities appropriate for the classroom setting. It is also worthy of note that private instruction in English, taught by native English speakers, is in high demand, and teachers for such programs are being continuously recruited in England, Canada, the United States, Australia and New Zealand. In Italy and Germany, ESP is a crucial area and numerous ESP programs and conferences are available. Often PBL sessions are held at the workplace. For example, corporations such as Hewlett Packard have sites in both countries and offer mandatory PBL training sessions in English related to the specific qualifications and responsibilities of an employee’s position.
  • 15. 12 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Conclusions and Recommendations We suggest that the examples above illustrate that use of problem-based learning tools have much to offer in the teaching of English for Specific Purposes. This is particularly true in the case of the STEM disciplines which have emerged to full development and proliferation in the 20th Century and expand in importance in the 21st. One conclusion we reach in this regard is that the problem definition, and then systematic solution seeking emphasis of these disciplines lend themselves uniquely to the PBL approach to learning the unique English of the fields, and that the scholars and practitioners in these fields will be the ultimate beneficiaries. Several of the authors referenced have noted that there are attitudinal and learning style issues that impede effective ESP learning. They have noted: - indifference to use of English, in spite of globalization of disciplinary communications; - vocabulary weakness with little interest in building term knowledge to a critical mass associated with effective written or verbal exchanges within a professional setting; - student passivity in academic settings that reflects cultural reluctance to confront authority figures, even in the face pressures to adapt; - and, conversational pace inhibiting clear understanding of both theoretical and practical considerations. It is our conclusion and suggestion that the use of a problem-based approach in ESP learning situations, especially those in STEM fields, will help to overcome these obstacles to learning, and contribute to greater facility in English by the learner, within and without the area of specific emphasis. References Albanese, M. A. & Mitchell, S. (1993). Problem-based learning: A review of literature on its outcomes and implementation issues. Academic Medicine, 68, 52-81. Alqahtani, M.A. (2015). Teaching English for Specific Purposes: Attitudes Among Saudi Engineering Students. English Language Teaching, 8(7), 76-94. Retrieved from https://www.eric.ed.gov/EJ1075441 Banditvilai, C. (2016). Enhancing Students’ Language Skills through Blended Learning. Electronic Journal of e-learning, 14(3) 220-229. Retrieved from https://www.eric.ed.gov/EJ1107134 Boothe, D. & Vaughn, R., (2011). Innovative English Language Acquisition Through Problem-based Learning. Presented at International Conference on the Future of Education, June 16-17, Florence, Italy. Caspary, M. & Boothe, D. (2016). Exploring active learning methodologies for language learners in the scientific curriculum. Education and New Developments. World Institute for Advanced Research and Science, Lisbon, Portugal, 168-171.
  • 16. 13 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Cummins, J. (2000). Language, Power and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire. Cleveland: Multilingual Matters, 39. Duch, B. J. (1996). Problems: A key factor in PBL. About Teaching, 50 (Spring), 7-8. eLearning Industry (2014). The quintessential of problem-based learning. Instructional Design Models and Theories: Problem-based Learning. Retrieved from http://elearningindustry.com Fischer, K. (2011). Golden Gate U. Instructs Foreign Students in the Language of Business. Chronicle of Higher Education, 57(43), Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/article/Golden-Gate-U-Instructs/128545 Gvardjancic, A. (2001). Introduction. In: Gvardjancic, A., Boothe, D., Vukadinovic, N., (eds). Issuses and Ideas: Problem-Based Learning 2001. Slovenian Association of LSP Teachers, Ljubljana, 2001, 7-11. Hoa, N.T.T. & Mai, P.T.T. (2016). Difficulties in Teaching English for Specific Purposes, Empirical Study at Vietnamese Universities. Higher Education Studies, 6(2), 154- 161. Retrieved from https://www.eric.ed.gov/EJ1101357. Johnson, J. & Kean, E. (1992). Improving Science Teaching in Multicultural Settings: A Qualitative Study. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 1(4), 275-287. Kaufman, A., Mennin, S., Waterman, R., Duban, S., Hansbarger, C., Silverblatt, H., Obenshain, S. S., Kantrowitz, M. Becker, T., Samet, J, & Wiese, W. (1989). The New Mexico experiment: educational innovation and institutional change. Academic Medicine 64, 285-294. Kleanthos, A. & Cordozo, W. (2016). Collaboration Through Blogging: The Development of Writing and Speaking Skills in ESP Courses. Presented at EUROCALL Conference (23rd, Limassol, Cyprus, Aug 24-27, 2016) Retrieved from https://www.eric.ed.gov/ED572178 Kosel, B. (2002). Problem-Based Learning in Teaching English Across the Curriculum. IATEFL ESP SIG Newsletter, 21. Retrieved from http://espsig.iatefl.org/newsletters.index.html Krashen, S. (1981). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. New York: Prentice Hall, 52-55. Lee, O. (2005). Science education with English language learners: Synthesis and research agenda. Review of Educational Research, 75(4), 491-530. Liu, L. (2016). Why Do Chinese Students Learn ESP: An Analysis of Language Learning Motivations Within SDT Framework. English language Teaching, 9(4), 92-105. Retrieved from https://www.eric.ed.gov/EJ1095541 Nicolaides, A. (2012). Innovative teaching and learning methodologies for higher education Institutions. Educational Research (ISSN: 2141-5161), 3(8), 620-626. Retrieved from http://www.interesjournals.org/ER Polanyi, M. (1966). The Tacit Experience. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 4.
  • 17. 14 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Privas-Breaute, V. (2016). Creating an Avatar to Become a Spect-Actor of Ones’s Learning of ESP. The EUROCALL Review, 24(1), 40-52. Retrieved from https://www.eric.ed.gov/EJ1096401 Purser, R. (2010). Problem-based Learning (excerpt from course description for Management 405). Retrieved from http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~rpurser/pages/problem.htm Scott, K. (2014). A multilevel analysis of Problem-based learning design characteristics. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 8 (2). Stoddart, T., Pinal, A., Latzke, M., & Canaday, D. (2002). Integrating inquiry science and language development for English language learners. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(8), 664-687. Stover, D. (1998). Problem-Based Learning: Redefining Self-Directed Instruction and Learning. The Forum Sharing Information on Teaching and Learning, 7, 1. Retrieved from http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/labyforum/fall98/forum7.html Wu, L. (2014). Motivating Collage Students Taking English for Specific Purposes Courses through Corpus Building. English language Teaching, 7(6), 120-127 Retrieved from https://www.eric.ed.gov/EJ1075766 Yew, E. & Goh, K. (2016). Problem-Based Learning: An overview of its process and impact on learning. Health Professions Education, 2(2), 75-79.
  • 18. 15 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 15-28, March 2017 Learning in Motion: Teachers‟ Perspectives on the Impact of Stationary Bike Use in the Classroom Julie Lynn Mueller Wilfrid Laurier University Waterloo, Canada Amanada Wudarzewski Run for Life Yoad Avitzur Wilfrid Laurier University Waterloo, Canada Abstract. The potential of physical activity to support self-regulated learning in the classroom has encouraged the implementation of stationary bicycles across Canada and the United States. Positive testimonials suggest that their use by students has positive outcomes, but there is limited empirical evidence supporting the efficacy of this pedagogical practice. The current study analyzes teachers‟ perceptions of the use and impact of stationary exercise bicycles in classrooms as part of a community running program initiative through a nationwide survey of 107 participants. Key findings identify teacher perceptions of positive outcomes in students‟ social, emotional, and cognitive development, as well as to the learning environment. A small set of unique challenges were posed by the bike integration, including limited distraction and some scheduling difficulties. Teachers approached the integration of the bikes on a spectrum of control from “student- regulated” to “teacher-regulated” with some combination of both, and movement from teacher-directed use to more student-initiated use after the bike was in use for some time. The implications for the use of stationary bikes as a tool for self-regulated learning in an active classroom are discussed and future research measuring learning outcomes is suggested. Keywords: self-regulated learning; active learning; elementary education; aerobic activity; teacher perceptions Research across disciplines suggests that physical fitness and exercise have a positive effect on brain activity, working-memory, executive function, and emotion regulation, as well as a mitigating effect on age-related cognitive decline and disease (Berg, 2010; Pontifex, Hillman, FernHall, Thompson, & Valentini,
  • 19. 16 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 2009; Van Praag, 2009; Ratey, 2008; Shanker 2012; Sibley & Beilock, 2007; Tomporowski, Lambourne, & Okumra, 2011). Aerobic exercise acts as a stimulant to the brain, increasing cerebral blood flow, synaptic activity and neural connections, which potentially improve learning (Berg, 2010; Pontifex et al., 2009). Multiple studies testing brain function before a period of moderate to significant weekly exercise and afterward found that exercise improves overall brain function (Van Praag, 2009). The cognitive effects of exercise are not limited to an increase in overall brain activation, but physical activity enhances neurotransmitter activity affecting higher order cognitive functioning, executive control, and working memory as well. A variety of studies have shown a relationship between exercise and complicated task performance, including increased inhibitory control, increased focus, and an improved ability to resist distractions (Hillman, Pontifex, Raine, Casterlli, Hall, & Kramer, 2009; Hillman, Snook, and Jerome, 2003; Pontifex et al., 2009; & Sibley & Beilock, 2007). It is therefore suggested that children‟s ability to regulate their emotions can be enhanced by aerobic activity which helps in the management of anger, stress, fatigue, and restlessness which can present roadblocks to on-task behaviour and readiness to learn (Berg, 2010; Mahar, Murphy, Rowe, Golden, Shields, & Raedeke, 2006; Ratey, 2008). The importance of physical activity to the overall functioning of the human brain is recognized by scientific literature. One study found that aerobic exercise led to improved behavioural and academic performance for children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) when compared to a control (Pontifex, Saliba, Raine, Picchietti, & Hillman, 2013). Additionally, Ratey (2008) describes the correlation between physical exercise and academic performance in a case study of a secondary school in Naperville, Illinois. Naperville students engaged in moderate to vigorous physical exercise before learning, resulting in improvements to student achievement, including increased test scores and an enhancement of students‟ attention, alertness, and relaxation. In addition to improving overall cognitive functioning, morning exercise increased students‟ capacity to ignore distractions and effectively regulate their emotions, thus improving students‟ ability to learn. The success of the Naperville Project provided the impetus for the adoption of similar programs throughout the United States, including the PE4life programs, which “have trained over one thousand educators and 350 schools to emulate their program” (Stattlesmair & Ratey, 2009, p. 370). This evidence suggests that exercise can be used as a tool by teachers to help maintain and facilitate cognitive functioning in children. Tranter & Kerr (2016) identified physical exercise as an important „up-regulating‟ strategy, to be used throughout the school day, particularly when students‟ focus might dwindle. Exercises included activities such as stretching, yoga, jumping jacks, and dancing. In Ontario, Canada, the Ministry of Education mandated 20 minutes of compulsory Daily Physical Activity (DPA) in response to research that identified advantages to student self-regulated learning (SRL), including student attitude, and willingness to meet the challenges of daily life (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2005). Self-regulation can be conceptualized as a process of ongoing mental adjustment; one that requires the constant monitoring and modification of
  • 20. 17 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. emotions; focussing or shifting attention; controlling impulses; tolerating frustrations; and, delaying gratification (Shanker, 2012). Self-regulated learning (SRL) deals with equipping students with the skills necessary to observe their bodies and adjust their states of arousal to maximize the potential for learning to occur. This „optimal‟ state requires staying alert, focused, and relaxed, and necessitates an intimate knowledge of one‟s emotional and physical states so that one could discern how these states are distracting or contributing to processing and assimilating information (Shanker, 2012). Cognitive mechanisms including executive functioning, inhibitory control, and concentration, necessary for self-regulation and a readiness to learn, are enhanced by physical exercise (Pontifex et al. 2009; Van Praag, 2009; Ratey, 2008; Sibley & Beilock, 2007; Tomporowski et al., 2011; Woltering & Lewis, 2009). Monitoring and adjusting negative emotions is a necessary component of emotional self-regulation, but it is not sufficient. In addition to regulating or managing negative emotions, children must be encouraged to develop positive ones through nurturing feelings of self-worth and security (Shanker, 2012). Physical exercise could be seen as an activity that builds self-esteem and well- being in addition to countering stress, fatigue, anger, and anxiety. Physical activity has the potential to support self-regulation of negative emotions in a learning environment as well as increase feelings of self-esteem. Educators across Canada have introduced classroom use of stationary bikes in an effort to improve SRL in children, promoting the control of both negative and positive emotions in preparation for learning. Bikes were intended to provide an opportunity for any student who is feeling distracted, anxious, tired, or angry throughout the school day to „hop on‟ and pedal until he or she is ready to learn. Canadian national news media have reported largely positive teacher and student feedback following the implementation of stationary bike programs in public schools (Senick 2017; Thomson 2016; Mitton & Barth, 2016). Yet, one opinion piece (Bennett 2016) is more critical, stating that “Self-regulation – with or without spin bikes – may turn out to be another passing fancy in education reform.” Further, in his opinion piece, Bennett (2016) notes the lack of research on the subject and asks “where‟s the research to support these classroom spin bike experiments?” Indeed, the growing popularity of stationary bicycles in the classroom setting is contrasted with the absence of empirical study on the impact of this intervention on classroom dynamics and student learning. An analysis of the use of stationary bikes in classrooms should discern its effects on classroom management and dynamics, as well as its influence on student emotions and behaviours, including self-esteem, relaxation, mental awareness, and well-being. The current study initiates this necessary evaluation by examining teachers‟ perspectives of the impact of classroom use of stationary bikes, and the variables that might predict student self-regulation and learning outcomes. Method One hundred and seven Canadian teachers from urban, suburban, and rural schools from across the country completed a 44-question online survey about the use of stationary exercise bikes in their schools. Participating teachers worked in
  • 21. 18 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. varied school contexts, in which schools were either publicly or privately funded, with populations ranging from under 100 to over 500 students, with students in Kindergarten to Grade 12. All participants were enrolled in Sparksfly, a stationary bike program offered by Run for Life--a non-profit community organization that deploys bicycles into classrooms to support students‟ active learning and self-regulation. The survey (see appendix A) was comprised of five parts including both forced-choice and open-ended questions examining consent; pedagogical strategies related to bike use; perspectives on observed behavioural outcomes; any challenges encountered during the implementation; and, demographic questions describing the schools and classrooms, funding, and future recommendations. Qualitative answers were recorded in Word documents and coded by two researchers for emerging themes. Any discrepancies were resolved through discussion. Results Description of Stationary Bike Use The majority of teachers (83%) indicated that their stationary bikes were located in their classrooms, while the remainder were located in a resource room or in another type of shared space. The specific location within the classroom varied across respondents. Teachers indicated that their bikes had been in their current location for a range of time; from less than a month (11%) to more than a year (24.3%). A slight majority of teachers (52%) indicated that the bikes were somewhat new, in the present location for a few months. The clear majority of teachers indicated that students used the bikes at least once per week (98%). Seventy five percent of teachers provided their students with specific bike-use guidelines while the remaining 25% did not. Among those teachers that did provide guidelines to their students, 68% gave instructions on turn-duration, ranging from one minute to 30 minutes, with 74% of teachers instructing their students to use the bikes for less than 10 minutes at one time. Qualitative answers indicated that duration of use depended on several factors, including demand and student need, e.g., “10 – 15 minutes depending on demand,” or “at least 5 minutes,” or “in my case, there is no misuse, and no time limit.” Participants were also asked to describe how they decided which students used the bikes and when. Qualitative answers were coded into four categories according to the degree of teacher/student control over the decision of by whom, and when, the bikes were used. Fifty-five percent of answers were coded as student regulated, while 19 percent of answers were coded as teacher regulated. A significant number of responses were coded as a combination of the two (17%), and 9 percent changed approaches beginning with a teacher regulated approach and later moved to a more student regulated method. There were two student regulated subcategories, based on the degree of autonomy students were given to determine bike use. Some teachers allowed students to use the bikes on a permission-basis, according to which students first recognized their need to self-regulate, and then asked the teacher if bike use was permitted at that moment by raising their hand or displaying some type of
  • 22. 19 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. signal, e.g., “Students can use a hand signal to ask to use the bike any time when the teacher is at the front of the room teaching or explaining.” Some teachers created an open/closed sign for the bike, and „opened‟ the equipment‟s use during work periods or other independent work time and „closed‟ it during instruction, while others allowed for constant student-controlled bike- use. The second subcategory in the student regulated theme, granted the most student control in determining bike-use. Decisions in this subcategory were based on a first-come-first serve basis. If students felt the need to regulate because of boredom, agitation, anxiety, or other distracting emotion or sensation, they were allowed to simply get out of their seats and use the bikes. The „teacher regulated’ category included three subcategories that also varied in degree of teacher control. The first subcategory included teacher-identified use where the need for bike use was recognized by the teacher rather than the student based on the student‟s agitation, anxiety, or boredom. The teacher recognized the need and suggested that the student use the bicycle, e.g., “if I see subtle cues to anxiousness I will ask if the student might like to jump on the Spark Bike.” A second subcategory divided access across students but with some students having priority over others based on their specific needs, e.g., “we have a schedule made so all students get an opportunity to use the bike. However, some names are on the schedule more than others.” The third subcategory still included teacher control but in a scheduled approach. Turns on the bikes were offered to all students equally and students were allowed to choose to either take their turn or to forfeit it. An example illustrating this subcategory is one teacher‟s invention of „The Bike Cup‟, which passed “from student to student. The student may choose to pass or ride the bike. If they pass, the cup goes to the next student. If they bike, they bike for two-three minutes and then pass the cup to the next student. In the morning, the cup is placed on a random student's desk and they decide which direction the cup will go.” Seventeen percent of teachers reported using both types of approaches simultaneously, typically allowing for student-regulation, but electing students to go when a student‟s need to self-regulate goes unnoticed by that student. For example, one teacher said “the students decide when I am teaching and they feel they have sat too long on the mat or when they are finished work; I decide when they are needing a refocus.” Lastly, 9% of teachers described their experience as one in which the bikes went through an initial period of teacher-control, and as students became more familiar with the equipment they were granted more autonomy for regulation. One teacher explains: “At first, there was a class list and they went in order. After a few days, we developed a signal (twirl your finger in the air). As the novelty faded, kids don't require permission. They just hop on whenever they want.” Additional Classroom Physical Activity In addition to stationary bike use, 77% of teachers surveyed indicated that they incorporated other physical activity opportunities in the classroom for their students. These other activities were categorized into three themes: dynamic full-
  • 23. 20 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. body movements, outdoor physical activity, and stationary activities in their seats. Eighty-five percent of responses fit in the full body category, and included activities like: BrainBreak, Gonoodle, Daily Vigorous Physical Activity (DVPA), yoga, running on the spot, jumping around, dancing, Zumba, and stretching. A smaller percentage (8%) of responses indicated that they took their students for outdoor physical activity, and six percent had their students perform different stationary activities in their seats, such as under-the-desk pedalling, active seating, breathing exercises, and meditation. Teachers were also asked if they modeled bike use in the classroom, and if so, how often students saw them using the stationary bike, on a five-point scale, ranging from 1 (Not at All) to 5 (More Than Once a Week). The mean score of 2.56 and standard deviation of 1.73 suggests significant variance amongst teachers, wherein a large number (45%) of teachers do not model bike-use to their students at all while 35% use the stationary bikes in front of their students at least once a week. Perceived Outcomes of Bike Use: Benefits Teachers were asked to agree or disagree with six statements about the perceived benefits of stationary bike use for students, on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), 3 (neutral). These questions asked whether teachers believed that the use of the stationary bikes increased students‟ sense of accomplishment, relaxation, mental-alertness, and self-esteem; whether they had observed any positive physical changes in students; and whether students enjoyed using the stationary bike (see Table 1 for means and standard deviations). Table 1. Means and standard deviations for perceived positive outcome variables. Outcome Mean SD n Enjoyment 4.5 .67 102 Accomplishment 3.93 .87 88 Relaxation 4.24 .64 98 Mental Alertness 4.24 .68 95 Self-Esteem 3.96 .76 91 Physical Changes 3.23 .87 78 A Perceived Positive Outcomes variable was calculated as an aggregate of the six separate questions (α = .89) for participants who answered each of the relevant questions (n=66). Overall, teachers reported that the stationary bikes had a positive effect on students in their classrooms (M= 4.05, SD = 0.59). A multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine what specific variables might predict teachers‟ perceived positive outcomes. Six variables were entered into the regression: how long the bike has been in its location; how often an individual student gets to use the bike; intensity with which the students use the bike; how often the
  • 24. 21 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. students see their teacher using the stationary bikes; physical activities in the classroom other than the bikes; and teacher perception of targeted use (whether the teacher found that students with attention or behavioural difficulties were particularly drawn to the stationary bike). The linear combination of these six measures was significantly related to perceived positive outcomes, F (6, 94) = 10.51, p < .001. The adjusted R square was .37, indicating that approximately 37% of the variance of perceived positive outcomes can be accounted for by the linear combination of the measures outlined above. Five out of the six independent variable were statistically significant (smallest t= 2.12, p= .04 to largest t = 3.96, p<.001). The only variable that did not significantly add to the regression was how long the bike has been in its location, t=1.25, p=.21. In addition to perceived positive outcomes, teachers were asked to use their own words to describe any other benefits that they perceived to result from student bike use. Thirty-six percent of participants provided answers that were categorized by five themes describing benefits related to physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development, as well as the learning environment. Teachers reported observing several physical improvements in their students due to the use of the stationary bikes, e.g., one kindergarten teacher said that the bike they have in their classroom “helps strengthen our students‟ gross motor development”, while another reported that bike use “increased better cardio in students.” Perceptions that bike use led to cognitive improvements were detailed as an increase in students‟ attention capacities, time-management skills, and ability to take effective breaks from learning. For example, one teacher reported that “some [students] are able to sustain attention longer than they were doing before I got my bike”, and that “students [were] becoming more independent in their break choices.” Improvement in students‟ emotional development were primarily related to an increased capacity for emotional regulation. For example, one teacher said that they “have found that for some students it helps to reduce anxiety to have that physical release. They are also more aware of their own moods and feelings as it has prompted us to do more focused learning of the recognition of these things.” Another teacher reported that students “generally seem more relaxed and ready to settle in to work”, another that students are “more aware of their bodies and brain development”, and lastly, “as well as having a calming effect, it [the bike] can also pep up tired students.” Indications of improvements to students‟ social development were found in teachers‟ reflections on students‟ ability to share objects, take turns, and avoid or resolve conflicts with no teacher involvement. For example, “[there is] less conflict in cases where specific students who have issues around anger management have shown a tendency, in part from use of the bike, to avoid asserting themselves aggressively toward other students.” Finally, references to the stationary bike‟s impact on the learning environment included comments such as “students can remain in class more, as they can go on a bike rather than going for a walk” and “when they work while they are on the bike with the portable table that they put on the handles, they are more focused on what they are doing.”
  • 25. 22 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Perceived Outcomes of Bike Use: Challenges When asked to rate the bikes as a source of distraction on a five-point scale, teachers indicated that the bikes were generally not seen as a distraction M=1.82, (SD = 0.95), ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), 3 (neutral). Correlation analyses between scores on the distraction variable and three other variables indicated a significant relationship: duration of bike in classroom; frequency of student use; and perceived positive outcomes. The duration in which the bike had been in its specific location was negatively correlated with the perceived distraction-level of the bikes, R= -0.26, p<.01, suggesting that the longer a bike had remained in its location, the less distracting it was perceived to be. An independent samples t-test found a statistically significant difference t(96)= 2.54, p<.01 in the mean scores of perceived distraction between participants who had bikes for less than one year (M= 2.0, SD= .88) when compared to those who had the bikes for one year or longer (M= 1.51, SD=.99). It appears that teachers that have had the bike for one year or less perceived them to be significantly more distracting than teachers that have had the bike for one year or longer. Distraction was also significantly correlated with Frequency of student use, R= -0.31, p <.01; more frequent bike use was related to lower levels of perceived distraction. Not surprisingly, the level of the bike‟s distraction was negatively correlated with the perceived positive outcomes composite variable, R= -0.4, p <.01. Nearly one quarter of teachers (23%) reported a situation in which a student was unable to use the stationary bikes, and one third (29.3%) faced a situation in which a student was reluctant or did not want to use the bikes. Explanations for students‟ inability to use the bikes were classified into two main categories: physical limitations of the student and inappropriate dress. Forty-two percent of answers referenced situations in which a student was not able to use the stationary bike because of physical limitations, such as the student‟s size, injury, or disability. It is important to note, however, that physical disability did not necessarily inhibit bike use. Indeed, teachers identified situations in which a student with physical or other limitations still managed to “one little girl who has a disability in a lower grade was really good on the bike. […] she loved it!” Explanations about student reluctance to use the bikes were grouped into three subcategories: the student did not like the bike; the bike was too difficult for the student to use; and the student was afraid or socially intimidated. It appears that “some students just don‟t like it, find it too hard, or [the bikes are] of no interest to them.” Some students are hesitant to use the bikes, and others appear to be afraid, e.g., “student was scared. Student may not feel that they will be successful.” Some teachers reported that students may perceive the stationary bikes as socially intimidating, and would prefer to avoid the unwanted attention that using the bicycle attracts, e.g., “some students do not feel comfortable to exercise in front of others, so they started off passing, but now most students use it daily.” Nearly half of the survey‟s respondents (49) answered an open-ended question asking what other challenges they encountered due to stationary bike integration. Participants‟ answers were categorized into three general themes:
  • 26. 23 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. classroom management concerns, difficulties with the bike itself, and access challenges. Classroom management concerns accounted for the largest percentage of the reported challenges (76%), and included student misconduct, horseplay, and inappropriate use of the bicycles, problems with turn-taking, bikes being used during inappropriate times, and bikes being used to avoid work. Examples of these behaviours include reports of “times that students are interrupting the lesson to discuss who gets to use the bike” or instances of students “hogging the bike”, and “disputes over who has the right to be on it.” A smaller number of additional problems involved difficulties with the bicycle itself, including reports that students cannot “do work on or read while they are biking”, and complaints over the bike‟s tension knob not working, or wheels becoming squeaky with use. The remaining comments reported access challenges, including not having enough bikes in the school/classroom and wanting more, issues with the cost of the bikes, and challenges encountered while fundraising for the equipment. Solutions to Challenges Participants were asked to share some of their solutions to address the challenges that they reported. Forty percent responded. The majority of responses (79%) addressed classroom-management challenges, suggesting things like “students need to self-regulate the taking of turns”, and “having a sign-up list has been helpful for some teachers in our school.” Teachers also discussed the importance of explaining the purpose of the bikes to students, namely the principles of self-regulation and how these relate to different students‟ needs. One teacher asserted students should know “that fair doesn't always mean even. Many of my students require the bike more than others.” Other teachers stressed establishing clear expectations with students on the consequences that might result from breaking guidelines by saying things like “stay firm and consistent on the consequences.” Other proposed solutions to challenges included using an open/closed sign for the bicycles to prevent their use during inappropriate times, and providing safety/usage instructions. A much smaller percentage of responses (13%) addressed access and technical issues, and included suggestions on how many bikes a school/classroom should have, fundraising tips, and ideas for how to modify the bikes to make them better, e.g., “having more bikes (2-3) per class”; “the community [should] get involved in fundraising efforts”; “a table top for completing work”; or “building a frame/box in front of the bike to allow students to place something so they can work/read while they bike”; and, assembling a “small tool kit with some extra parts so that it can be fixed easily and promptly” in case the bicycle malfunctions and requires repair. Recommendations When asked if they would recommend the implementation of stationary bicycles to other teachers, 99% of respondents said they would and 38 teachers gave a rationale. Favourable comments generally spoke to recommendations based on the observed benefits related to physical exercise and self-regulation in the classroom. Teachers suggested that the stationary bicycle provided students with a convenient means of exercising and lead to an increased awareness of the benefits of exercise. Teachers‟ comments also noted that the bicycles had a role
  • 27. 24 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. in improving student focus, motivation, productivity, processing, calmness, and well-being, for example, “I think it is a great way to teach students that even a little bit of exercise has many benefits- helps with concentration and attention, alleviates stress, gets rid of nervous energy, [and] is fun.” and “it's a no-brainer. Kids need to move and the spin bike is a wonderful and sustainable strategy to promote wellness, mind-body connections and self-awareness!” Teachers suggested that “bikes help students regain focus and they can produce more work and remain in the classroom while having a physical/emotional break.”, and that the bikes are a “fantastic addition to the classroom. Self regulation and exercise are huge benefits. Try sitting for five hours!” Overall, there was wide agreement across answers that stationary bicycle use is “an outlet for kids”, and that students generally “process better if they are moving.” Discussion When reviewing teachers‟ responses across a variety of survey questions, it is apparent that the perceived effects of stationary bike integration were largely positive, although the unique set of challenges posed by integration should not be overlooked. Key reflections made by teachers included proposed solutions to the challenges reported. One specific concern of integration of a new technology or pedagogical approach is the distraction and impact due to its novelty. Results suggest that this was a challenge that dissipated with time. The perceived positive outcomes of bike use reinforced the importance of incorporating learner-centred pedagogies to effectively support self-regulated use of stationary bikes. The study‟s 107 participants were a diverse group of teachers that used stationary exercise bikes as participating members of Run for Life‟s SparksFly program. Participants came from 8 different provinces/territories, a variety neighbourhood types, worked in broadly different settings in which school and class size varied widely, and taught different grades, ranging from Kindergarten to Grade 12. The survey followed a mixed-methods design containing both open and closed-ended questions. The collection of data by researchers independent of participating schoolboards ensured that teachers were free from any possible job-related repercussions, which allowed teachers to share both positive and negative opinions of the SparksFly program and its impact. The perceived benefits of stationary bike implementation on individual students were captured in participants‟ scores on the perceived positive outcomes variable and qualitative responses to open ended questions about bike use and its impact on student development. Those outcomes were aspects of self-regulated learning including enjoyment, sense of accomplishment, relaxation, mental alertness, self-esteem and physical changes. All of the perceived outcomes were seen as neutral to higher with the largest impact related to enjoyment, relaxation and mental alertness. Physical changes were scored lowest on average, more neutral than agreement, however. This is not surprising as the average frequency and duration of bike use was limited. The integration of stationary bike use was intended to capitalize on the connection between physical activity and readiness to learn rather than having any great impact on the level of physical fitness more generally. The bike use was one
  • 28. 25 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. aspect of what were recognized as physically active learning environments. Indeed, most teachers reported integrating other class-wide physical activity routines in addition to the stationary bikes, and about half of those surveyed used the bikes themselves. Qualitative data analysis revealed that following the introduction of the stationary bikes, teachers reported improvements in their students‟ physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development, as well as benefits to the learning environment. Some teachers‟ answers included perceived improvements in students‟ physical development due to bike use, for example, “increased better cardio”, “students biking to school”, and observations that the bike “helps strengthen our students‟ gross motor development.” Perceptions that bike use led to cognitive improvements were detailed as increases in students‟ attention capacities, improvement in time-management skills, and independent choice to take effective breaks from learning. The reported benefits on students‟ emotional development included students‟ ability to observe, reflect, and regulate their emotions. Students‟ social development manifested in positive changes to students‟ ability to share objects, take turns, and avoid or solve conflicts. Teachers identified an increase in students‟ ability to recognize not only their need to self-regulate through the bike use but an overall increase in empathy toward other students and their individual needs, for example, “My students are very empathetic to students who need the bike in a moment of distress or disruption.” Finally, references to improvements in the learning environment included the ability to keep students in the learning context and working while they took a physical break from sitting. Despite the numerous benefits of stationary bike implementation as indicated by teachers, the use of bikes in the classroom setting did pose a unique set of challenges, including physical limitations and student reluctance to use the stationary bikes; classroom management concerns; technical issues related to the bike itself; access difficulties; and the bike‟s potential to distract students from on-task behaviour. Although there was a range of scores related to perceived amount of distraction, the bikes were not generally seen as a distraction. The longer a bike remained in its location, the less distracting it was perceived to be. Although, perceived positive outcomes were significantly predicted by several variables, including intensity and frequency of use, the length of time that the bike had been in the same location was not a significant predictor, suggesting that positive outcomes may be seen right away. Teachers expressed that the challenges posed by stationary bike implementation are most palpable during the first few phases of the integration process, but lessen with the passing of time. In other words, when students are exposed to a classroom with a stationary bike for the first time, the bikes are extremely popular and it may seem like every student wants a turn. The great demand for the bike can lead to disruption and student conflict, especially when the bike is unregulated by the teacher. The constant activity surrounding bikes during this introductory period can be distracting for both teachers and students, and some teachers felt that they needed to be proactive regarding student bicycle use during this period, often coming up with creative ways to ensure students respectfully shared the bicycle without interrupting the learning of others. Suggestions to counter the
  • 29. 26 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. novelty effect that the bikes may elicit included having “discussions around it and development of rules by and with the students.” Qualitative responses regarding how bike use was regulated demonstrated a spectrum of control from student-regulated to teacher-regulated and a combination of both. According to respondents, as the novelty of this new equipment faded, the bicycles became more available for students that would benefit most from their use. Regulating students‟ bicycle use sometimes evolved as the class became better acquainted with the bike and teachers relinquished control. Some teachers initially chose to heavily regulate bike-use to allow every student to have a turn. After bike-use became normalized, some teachers lessened their control to a permission-based strategy in which students self- identified their need to use the bikes and then asked the teacher for permission to do so. Some teachers adjusted the rules so that bikes were used on a first- come-first-serve basis, in which any student who felt the need to self-regulate by using the stationary bicycle could do so without being a distraction. When the bike is implemented with the intent to develop self-regulation in students, it is important that teachers recognize and use pedagogical approaches that allow for student choice and decision-making. Differentiated instruction becomes the norm. If students are instructed to use the bicycles with moderate to vigorous intensity until they feel relaxed and ready to learn whenever they feel hyper, angry, tired, anxious, or any other distracting emotion, they begin to actively „monitor‟ their emotions and act on their self-evaluations. This mindfulness helps to mobilize SRL when coupled with a strategy (i.e. stationary bike use) intended to help mitigate the distracting emotions and lead to increased learning. The stationary bike is there for any student to just „hop on‟ until they become “calm, alert, and learning” (Shanker, 2012). Three key findings from this study include:  The most common challenge of implementing stationary bikes in the classroom was the initial distraction. The distraction was limited, however, and readily overcome through discussion and practice. Introduction of the bike may have contributed to students‟ ability to recognize individual learning needs.  Teachers perceived a number of positive outcomes in relation to the use of stationary bikes. The initial purpose of the bike, to improve self-regulation leading to an increase in learning, was accomplished on various levels, contributing to individual social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes as well as an overall positive impact on the classroom learning environment.  The results of this study identified a spectrum of control around the use of the bike, ranging from student-regulated to teacher-regulated. The position of control along that spectrum has implications for the level of student self-regulation. Implications and future research The positive outcomes and limited challenges identified in this study suggest that use of stationary bikes in classrooms is one potential strategy for supporting self-regulated learning across grades and contexts. The
  • 30. 27 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. implementation of the bike should be part of an overall pedagogical approach to supporting self-regulated learning and should be treated as any other emerging instructional tool. Teacher knowledge, examples of success, easy access, and support are critical to ensuring a positive experience (Mueller, Wood, Willoughby, DeYoung, Ross, & Specht, 2008). Although the teachers in this study were perhaps „champions for the cause‟ and included physical activity in other aspects of their classrooms, the findings of this study offer evidence to support a broader implementation of stationary bikes as a tool for self-regulated learning. Although the current study included a survey of teacher perceptions rather than direct measurement of student outcomes, the findings and implications are a significant addition to the literature examining self-regulated learning and the impact of physical activity on learning. Wendel, Benden, Zhao and Jeffrey (2016) identified positive results of stand-biased desks versus seated classrooms on student BMI increases after two years of intervention. Future research that includes extended intervention projects and measurement of actual student learning outcomes following use of the bikes will expand on the evidence base and provide specific support for successful implementation. References Bennett, P. (2016, April). Stationary bikes in the classroom: Are we spinning out of control? The Globe and Mail. Berg, K. (2010). Justifying physical education based on neuroscience evidence. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 81(3), 24-46. Hillman, C. H., Pontifex, M. B., Raine, L. B., Castelli, D. M., Hall, E. E., & Kramer, A. F. (2009). The effect of acute treadmill walking on cognitive control and academic achievement in preadolescent children. Neuroscience, 159(3), 1044–1054. Hillman, C.H., Snook, E.M., & Jerome, G.J. (2003). Acute cardiovascular exercise and executive control function. International Journal of Psychophysiology. 48, 307-314. Mahar, M. T., Murphy, S. K., Rowe, D. A., Golden, J., Shields, T., & Raedeke, T. D. (2006). Effects of a classroom-based physical activity program on physical activity and on-task behavior in elementary school children. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 38 (12), 2086-94. Mitton, P. (Writer), & Barth, W. (Director). (2016, March). Classroom stationary bikes encourage kids to blow off steam while learning [Television series episode]. In Kalbfleisch, C., Nasser, S., & Pagel, J. (Producers), The Current. Toronto, Ontario: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Mueller, J., Wood, E., Willoughby, T., DeYoung, T., Ross, C., & Specht, J. (2008). Identifying discriminating variables between teachers who fully integrate computers and teachers with limited integration. Computers and Education, 51, 1523-1537. Ontario Ministry of Education. (2005). Resource Guide. Daily physical activity in schools. Grades 4 to 6. Ontario Ministry of Education. Pontifex, M. B., Hillman, C. H., Fernhall, B., Thompson, K. M., & Valentini, T. A. (2009). The effect of acute aerobic and resistance exercise on working memory. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise,41(4), 927-934.
  • 31. 28 © 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Pontifex, M. B., Saliba, B. J., Raine, L. B., Picchietti, D. L., & Hillman, C. H. (2013). Exercise improves behavioral, neurocognitive, and scholastic performance in children with ADHD. The Journal of Pediatrics, 162(3), 543–551. Ratey, J. (2008). Spark: The Revolutionary New Science of Exercise and the Brain. New York: Little, Brown and Co. Senick, J. (2017, January). Saskatoon teachers use stationary bikes to help students concentrate. Global News. Shanker, S. G. (2012). Calm, Alert and Learning: Classroom Strategies for Self-Regulation. Toronto: Pearson. Shanker S. G. (2012) Emotional Regulation through the Ages, in Foolen A., Ludtke U.M., Racine T.P. & Slatev J. (Eds) Moving Ourselves, Moving Others: motion and emotion in intersubjectivity, consciousness and language, pp. 105–138. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Sibley, B. A., & Beilock, S. L. (2007). Exercise and working memory: An individual differences investigation. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 29(6), 783- 791. Stattlesmair, J., & Ratey, J. (2009). Physically active play and cognition: An academic matter? American Journal of Play, (1), 365-374. Thomson, A. (2016, March). How Canadian classrooms are being transformed by a revolution on two wheels. The Toronto Star. Tomporowski, P. D., Lambourne, K., & Okumra, M. S. (2011). Physical activity interventions and children‟s mental Function: an introduction and overview. Preventive Medicine, 52, s3-9. Tranter, D., & Kerr, D. (2016). Understanding Self-Regulation: Why stressed Students Struggle to Learn (Research Monograph No. 63). What works? Research into Practice. Literacy and Numeracy Secretariat and the Ontario Association of Deans of Education. Ontario. Van Praag, H. (2009). Exercise and the brain: Something to chew on. Trends in Neurosciences, 32(5), 283- 290. Wendel, M. L., Benden, M. E., Zhao, H., & Jeffrey, C. (2016). Stand-biased versus seated classrooms and childhood obesity: A randomized experiment in Texas. American Journal of Public Health, 106(10), 1849-1854. Woltering, S., & Lewis, M.D. (2009). Developmental pathways of emotion regulation in childhood: A neuropsychological perspective. Mind, Brain, and Education 3(3), 160-169.
  • 32. 29 © 2017 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 29-37, March 2017. Expanding Areas of Influence at Azores University: Virtual Campus, Regional Clusters and Points of Presence Rogerio L. Roth University of the Azores Ponta Delgada, Portugal Abstract. The tripolarity of the University of the Azores, characterised by three campuses and facilities has been shown to be economically unviable, socially unjust and at the same time insufficient to allow the attendance of all nine islands of the archipelago. The location in an outermost region of the European Union does not guarantee a positive discrimination. The solution might lie in a paradigm shift, based on a decapolar structure and through partnerships establish regional clusters, points of presence and a virtual campus. Keywords: regional clusters; points of presence; paradigm shifts; virtual campus Introduction The University of the Azores (UAC) is a Portuguese public institution, created within the framework of regionalization of higher education. It is important to bear in mind that the issue of insularity in the region involves specific solutions that fit to the geographical, economic and social realities of the Azores archipelago, located in the middle of the northern hemisphere of the Atlantic Ocean. source: http://www.visitazores.com/en source: http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%A7ores
  • 33. 30 © 2017 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. The issue of insularity provides a tripolar character to the region, with poles in the cities of Ponta Delgada, Angra do Heroísmo and Horta, which gave rise to the present Azorean campuses. In this paper I focus on analyzing the tripolar physical campus model used by UAC, analyze similar institutions and propose a new model of expansion, based on regional clusters, points of presence and a virtual campus. The paper draws on findings from the research “Implementation Strategies and Development of an Open and Distance Education System for the University of the Azores” (Roth, 2013), funded by the European Social Fund. The main objective of this research was to observe the recent events related to likely paradigm shift in the educational area and propose to UAC the adoption of solutions that can, at the same time, correct implementations already carried out in previous experiments and respond to these new challenges. After 36 years since its creation, the University continues to face challenges, particularly arising from the inexorable process of globalization – phenomenon started in the 15th century with the era of Portuguese discoveries, of the knowledge-based society and the policy effects of chronic underfunding of public higher education in Portugal. However, as we’ll see, UAC has been unable to serve the entire archipelago with the structure defined in 1976. This concept is being questioned today. The latest concern is with old theories about the functioning and costs of the tripolar infrastructure. There are those who are once again defending the centralization of UAC on a single island, claiming that the three infrastructures is that it hinders the financial management of the academy (Lima, 2012). Would it be a priority to invest in education in times of crisis? Probably not... Would it be possible to have more and better education for all, without further costs? Certainly… Referring to Portugal, Crato (2012) says that: “the greatest debt that a country can generate is the perpetuation of ignorance”. However Morgado (2011), previously in a self-criticism, recognizes the difficulties faced in the country: “think and talk is easy. But roll up their sleeves and put hands to work is something else. We are a speaking society”. The analysis shows that the current structure does not serve physically the whole archipelago forcing the movement of students and professors (Roth, 2013). In addition, it is impossible (in the current model), to have the pretension to meet the natural demands (geographical vocation), services, industry, interests (public and private) and personal choices of each citizen who does not need to be limited to any demands, initiatives and existing course offerings locally and always will determine the movement or to another island, or to the mainland or overseas, often a path without return – many azoreans are going to study elsewhere and they do not come back to the Azores (exodus). However, this can be bypassed.
  • 34. 31 © 2017 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Nowadays, it is possible to offer the “world” – without the need to leave home, city, island or region – through partnerships and agreements with other national and international institutions to offer and develop different kinds of courses, targeting to specific needs, enabling multiple certifications and joint development. In recent years UAC has missed the train in relation to various demands, and that applies in relation to e-learning, the lack of struggle against resistance of professors in the use of technology; the lack of attention to migratory diversity of the Azores, the lack of support to students in mobility; the lack of approximation of departments – that can be considered watertight areas that hardly communicate with each other, compete among themselves and hardly collaborate on joint projects; the failure to reply to the invitation to participate at OpenCourseWare (OCW) Universia and the non-participation in calls that could improve their infrastructure, reducing the effects of insularity, effective presence in all the islands, reduction of maintenance costs, increased visibility, external projection and internationalization by finding new customers outside its surroundings (Roth, 2013). Cabral (2012) points out the future challenges, doubts and related issues that the azoreans themselves also seem to have doubts: “…our academy will also have to make an effort to restructure and adapt to the new reality of these times”. “…it is necessary that the university engage more with the society, in order we realised and be involved in supporting its operation. The university should clarify, to all of taxpayers, which is the strategy it intends to take for their survival, and how to solve numerous problems of management, exploitation and investments; for which we keep hearing questions and major concerns”. Medeiros (2013) recognizes these difficulties, stressing that “the University of the Azores to become a true university of the 21st century would have to innovate and transform themselves in order to follow these new concepts introduced by the Europe 2020 strategy. These concepts will require a new dynamic only possible by introducing new mobilizing structures, new working methods, new ways of dealing with the community, new strategies in the fields of scientific production, new capabilities to mobilize other audiences, new axes for social and technological transformation and new ideas to intervene in society that continues to see the university as the main promoter of qualification, innovation and creativity”. Several Portuguese universities are betting on their own projects. Moreover, we cannot deny the role of the universities of Aveiro and Minho which are among the most technological universities of the country. http://www.ua.pt/ http://www.uminho.pt/ The pursuit of national references to support the implementation of projects mediated by technologies usually refers to the Portuguese Open University (UAb), a distance education public university, created in 1988. http://www.uab.pt/