Enhancing Preservice Teacher Training with Bug-in-Ear Tech

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VOLUME 16 NUMBER 2 February 2017
Table of Contents
Bug-In-Ear Technology to Enhance Preservice Teacher Training: Peer Versus Instructor Feedback..........................1
Nikki L. Hollett, Sheri J. Brock and Vanessa Hinton
The Necessity for Assessment and Management of Speech, Language and Communication Needs to Take
Account of Cultural and Multilingual Diversity .............................................................................................................. 11
Jonathan Glazzard
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy on Employment Development of Individuals with Disabilities .......................................... 22
Li Ju Chen
A Simulation-Based Model for Teaching Business Writing: Exploration and Applications ...................................... 35
Dr. Andrew Szanajda and Dr. Fang-Chun Ou
An Exploration of Culturally Grounded Youth Suicide Prevention Programs for Native American and African
American Youth....................................................................................................................................................................48
Rhonda G. Bluehen-Unger, Deborah A. Stiles, Jameca Falconer, Tammy R. Grant, Ericka J. Boney and Kelly K. Brunner
SThe Feature of ATR and ATR Harmony in NiloSaharan Languages of Ethiopia ...................................................... 62
Wakweya Olani Gobena

1
© 2017 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 1-10, February 2017
Bug-In-Ear Technology to Enhance Preservice
Teacher Training: Peer Versus Instructor
Feedback
Nikki L. Hollett, Sheri J. Brock and Vanessa Hinton
Auburn University
Alabama, United States
Abstract. Earbud technology has been used in teacher education to
strategically increase learning outcomes and appropriate decision-
making of pre-service teachers (PST) for over 60 years (Ottley &
Hanline, 2014). Research on the integration of wireless communication
in physical education teacher education (PETE) programs is limited,
however needed to prepare PST for effective teaching. The purpose of
this study was to examine the influence of instructor and peer cues via
Bug-In-Ear (BIE) technology on PST delivery of feedback and
movement. Participants (n=16) in an introductory methods course
taught 12 lessons to K-2nd grade children during a practical course
experience while receiving a condition: instructor verbal cueing, peer
verbal cueing, or control with no verbal cueing. Data collection included
videotaping and coding lessons for performance feedback (PFB) and
sector changes (SC) and individual interviews. Based on the occurrence
of cues per minute, results found significance with PFB offered more
frequently with instructor cues (F 2, 33 = 8.5, p= 0.001). Sector changes
increased in the instructor and peer cueing conditions, but differences
were not significant. Interview data revealed four major themes: (1) PST
focused more on teaching when using BIE technology; (2) using BIE was
sometimes distracting; (3) suggestions for improved implementation;
and (4) differences in peer and instructor verbal cueing. Results support
the beneficial integration of BIE technology into teaching methods
within a PETE program.
Keywords: teacher training; earbud technology; wireless
communication; teacher effectiveness
Introduction
Earbud technology has been used to help individuals gain the applied skills
needed to be successful in the workforce for over 60 years (Ottley & Hanline,
2014). This kind of technology is referred to as a Bug-In-Ear (BIE) device or a
Whisper-In-My-Ear (WIME) device (Farrell & Chandler, 2008), in which trainees
insert the device into their ear, and the trainer or observer can speak to the
trainee through the microphone on the transmitter. With BIE the trainee is not
able to speak back to the trainer at the transmitter and the trainer does not have

2
to be visible, thus encouraging more flexibility and independency due to more
indirect supervision. When using BIE to deliver immediate feedback, the
individual is able to alter behavior and techniques instantaneously.
Combining BIE with a virtual network can enable immediate feedback from
remote locations (Gibson & Musti-Rao, 2016). Webcam and Skype are examples
of technological advancements that make supervision of PST more convenient
and realistic. Individuals can set up a webcam to face the classroom or gym,
while the teachers or professors supervising can be in another classroom or
school. Videoconferencing has been used in rural and international locations
providing accessibility to those who are limited with resources and are isolated
(Alger & Kopcha, 2009; Bullock, Gable, & Mohr, 2008; Scheeler, McKinnon, &
Stout, 2012). More recently eCoaching or electronic coaching has been used for
simultaneous supervision through the internet to the PST to provide immediate
feedback during teaching (Coogle, Rahn, & Ottley, 2015; Regan, Weiss, &
Evmenova, 2017; Rock et al., 2014; Scheeler et al., 2010).
BIE technology can also be an effective tool to implement in the education
setting when preparing pre-service teachers (PST) (Farrell & Chandler, 2008;
Scheeler & Lee, 2002). BIE technology can be useful in providing a more
independent approach for PST to learn, however attitudes toward the
technology vary. For cooperating teachers, being able to use the BIE allowed
them to “feel closer and more connected with their k-5 class without actually
teaching…one of my major concerns is losing contact with my class, or watching
them get out of control when not under my supervision…I now had control over
my class and a better connection with the student teacher” (Farrell & Chandler,
2008, p. 3). Cooperating teachers also gained a stronger relationship with their
PST personally and professionally by working as a team (Farrell & Chandler,
2008).
Aim and purpose
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of instructor and peer
prompts via BIE communication on PST feedback and movement. Specifically,
researchers examined the frequency of performance feedback statements and
sector changes during a series of teaching episodes. PST were also asked to
reflect on the use of BIE technology and its influence on their teaching in
interviews.
Background
In this section, we aim to review the literature in classroom and physical
education settings that have incorporated BIE technology into research designs.
Justifications for the use of performance feedback and sector changes as the
outcomes measured will conclude this part of the article.
BIE in general and special education
BIE technology has been used in research extensively in general and special
education classrooms. Numerous studies have found BIE technology to work

3
effectively in providing feedback to change teaching behaviors of PST working
in general classrooms and with special education students (McAfee, Ruhl, & Lee,
2006; Scheeler & Lee, 2002; Scheeler, McAfee, Ruhl, & Lee, 2006). Immediate
performance feedback, as stated by Scheeler, McAfee, Ruhl, and Lee (2006),
instantly stops teachers from practicing less effective teaching methods,
permitting students to receive more effective instruction. However, immediate
feedback can have a negative impact on the instruction the PST is giving by
distracting the teacher. The authors also found that if the feedback is delayed or
once the session is complete, the PST may continue the negative behavior
throughout their field based experiences and in service applied settings
(Scheeler et al. 2006). In a study by Goodman, Brady, Duffy, Scott, and Pollard
(2008), BIE technology was utilized to provide immediate feedback to special
education teachers in a K-8 classroom. Results showed rate and accuracy of
effective teaching behaviors improved with the novice teachers that used BIE
technology; during baseline period (without BIE) average accuracy was 58.3%,
and during intervention (with BIE) average accuracy was 95.3%. Coogle, Rahn,
and Ottley (2015) used BIE eCoaching through Skype to support effective
communication strategies of early childhood special education teachers. Results
indicated that immediate feedback through the use of BIE eCoaching improved
the PST communication strategies with children with special needs in small-
group activities. This outcome supports the use of BIE technology to give
feedback from a distance to enhance the student teaching methods (Rock et al.,
2009; 2012; Scheeler et al., 2010).
BIE in physical education
Research using BIE technology in physical education is limited to qualitative
designs focusing on satisfaction of using the device while teaching (Fry & Hin,
2006; Kahan, 2002). Kahan (2002) studied communication characteristics,
participant satisfaction, and attitudes toward BIE technology from the
standpoint of a PST and a cooperating teacher (CT). Data collection included
communication analysis, eight questionnaires (one after each lesson), and one
exit interview for one PST and her CT over the course of one semester. Results
found that communication in each lesson was of short duration (M = 15.8 s) and
low rate (M = 0.25 communications/min) with the majority of communications
being managerial and initiated by the CT. Interview data generated three themes
to explain the characteristics of analyzed communication: CT and PST
interpersonal and professional compatibility; role clarity; and commitment to
perceived role function. Interpersonal and professional compatibility
represented the balanced and compatible relationship between the CT and PST.
Both participants exhibited an emphasized managerial teaching philosophy and
similar attitudes on curriculum ideas. Role clarity explained the participants’
sense of roles and responsibilities toward each other. The CT provided the
advice, mentorship, and supervising that the PST needed in order to develop as
a quality teacher. Perceived role function were different for both participants
due to their status, and this reflected in their initiated communications. The CT
perceived her role to critically observe and provide instructional feedback to the
PST, whereas the PST perceived her role to be focused on her teaching and to
develop her confidence and self-efficacy as a teacher. Thus, the number of PST

4
initiated communication was lower than the CT. The PST developed her skills as
a teacher through the initiation of communication.
“Over time, the student teacher’s teaching behaviors indicated that she
had assumed ownership of the class in every facet and had adopted the
cooperating teacher’s ideas such as beginning-of-lesson fitness games, time
saving equipment-distribution routines, and organization of students for
class that prevented or reduced off-task behavior and increased activity
time” (Kahan, 2002, p.95).
Kahan (2002) found the PST showed higher satisfaction when receiving instant
feedback during the lesson. It was also stated the PST took ownership of the
classes and was more comfortable after receiving peer coaching via wireless ear-
buds. PST reported that the discretion, immediacy, and feedback were
cooperative, supportive, and offered great value to her teaching (Kahan, 2002).
Furthermore, Fry and Hin (2006) used interactive wireless technology to allow
PST (n= 21) to communicate with each other throughout their lessons, while
measuring satisfaction in the role of a teacher and coach. The PST were enrolled
in a Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) program and were required
to teach daily lessons over a four-week period. Data from a questionnaire
reported PST had higher levels of satisfaction at the end of the four-week
teaching block in the amount of communication (3.25 to 3.76), the content of
communication (3.85 to 4.00), and satisfaction with the role as a student teacher
(3.70 to 4.00). Results support PST being generally satisfied using the technology
during their teaching experiences.
Measuring teacher effectiveness in physical education
When incorporating BIE technology into teacher preparation, it is important to
identify criteria that determine teacher effectiveness. Since Medley (1979)
primarily defined teacher effectiveness as having desirable traits and practicing
effective methods in the classroom, researchers have focused on developing
systematic methods based on these conceptions for measuring teaching (Rink,
2013). Rink (2013) described the shift from studying indirect teaching
characteristics (teacher warmth, praise, flexibility) to studying more direct
teaching characteristics (task-oriented, learning experiences, activity time,
monitoring, and feedback) as more meaningful research. Providing feedback
was a direct teaching characteristic identified as being positively correlated with
student achievement (Rink, 2013). Additionally, analyzing sector changes
provided a critical component of teacher movements within the classroom (van
Der Mars, Darst, Vogler, & Cusimano, 1995). van der Mars, Darst, Vogler, and
Cusimano (1995) measured teachers’ sector changes and performance feedback
with students during lessons. Instead of focusing solely on communication
between two people, van der Mars et al. (1995) wanted to establish a detailed
database on certain dimensions of elementary physical education teachers’
involvement and active supervision behaviors, and also observe the relationship
between teachers’ supervision and students’ activity engagement. Results
indicated teachers gave frequent skill feedback (3.2 times per minute), which is
greater than typical rates with cognizance both to students’ motor skill

5
performance and to basic class conduct (van der Mars et al., 1995). van der Mars
and his colleagues (1995) also measured the amount of sector changes by student
teachers through the use of video recording and found that on average, the
teachers changed sectors 6.05 times per minute.
Methodology
Sample
Participants included 16 PST (Mage=21, M=9, F=7) enrolled in an introductory
physical education methods course at a university in the southeastern United
States. PST had no teaching experience prior to enrolling in this course. As part
of the course, PST were required to teach 12 lessons consisting of fundamental
motor skill instruction to children in K-2nd grade, each lesson with a duration of
15 minutes. PST videotaped all lessons and submitted them to the instructor at
the end of the semester. Approval was granted by the Institutional Review
Board (IRB) to conduct the research study.
Design
Using a quasi-experimental design, PST were systematically assigned to one of
three conditions: (1) instructor verbal cueing – prompts from the instructor; (2)
peer verbal cueing – prompts from a peer; or (3) control – no prompts. PST wore
a BIE and wireless receiver clipped to their belt, while the instructor/peer
provided verbal prompts by speaking into a wireless microphone transmitter.
The BIE allowed the PST to hear feedback from the instructor/peer in response
to their teaching performance. PST were provided with two brief statements
concerning movement and feedback at the end of each minute which included
one of the following dichotomous statements: “Good movement or move
around” and “good performance feedback or give performance feedback”. The
intervention required feedback to be delivered immediately to the PST by the
instructor or a peer. Additionally, individual interviews were conducted with
each PST.
Data analysis
A research assistant without association with the methods course was
responsible for coding all lessons for movement/sector changes (SC) and
performance feedback (PFB). Sector changes were measured by the amount of
movement throughout the lesson by the PST. All of the teaching areas were
divided into four sectors by paint, tape, etc. PST were not informed of why the
teaching area was divided into sections. Performance feedback was recorded
when PST gave feedback relating to the students’ performance. For example,
“Nice job keeping your elbow up.” Performance feedback was coded when the
PST gave feedback to a group or individual regarding the performance of the
activity or game. Performance feedback was not recorded when the PST was
explaining instructions. Inter-rater reliability was established by the primary
researcher and research assistant on four occasions: SC (97.8%); and PFB
(95.4%). Data were converted to rate per minute to normalize lesson lengths. A
Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was conducted using SPSS

6
version 22. Interview data were transcribed and subject to standard qualitative
methods in order to generate themes (Patton, 1990).
Results
Overall, PST receiving verbal prompts performed more sector changes (peer 3.55;
instructor 3.8) and gave more performance feedback statements per minute (peer
.85; instructor 1.14) than PST who received no verbal prompts (control = 2.31; .55)
(see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Rate per minute of targeted behaviors based on condition.
Results indicated significant differences for the instructor condition only, Wilk’s
Λ = 0.656, F6, 62= 2.4, p < .05. Specifically, univariate analysis signified PST gave
more performance feedback when the instructor provided cues (F 2, 33 = 8.5,
p=0.001). Post Hoc comparisons using Bonferroni indicated the mean score of
performance based feedback for the instructor condition (M = 1.14, SD = .33) was
significantly higher than the peer condition (M = .81, SD = .30) and the control
condition (M = .61, SD = .31). It is important to note the mean score was higher
for the peer condition compared to the control condition, even though there was
not statistical significance.
Interview data revealed the following dominant themes: (1) PST focused
more on teaching when using BIE technology; (2) using BIE was sometimes
distracting; (3) suggestions for improved implementation; and (4) differences in
peer and instructor verbal cueing. Pseudonyms were used to maintain
anonymity.
Theme 1: All 16 PST said they were more focused on teaching when
receiving verbal prompts. One PST stated, “When I went back and watched the
videos, I could tell after directions [prompts] were given I would give more
feedback and move around more.” Another PST explained, “My best lesson was
with the earbud in. It’s good to have someone keep you on track.” Other

7
representative comments included: “It helped me correct something I was doing
right then, rather than later”; “I felt more on task and focused”; and “When I
would use them it really helped with continuing to walk around. I wouldn’t
realize that I was just standing instead of walking as much as I should.”
Theme 2: 50% of the PST stated using the BIE device was sometimes
distracting. In an interview one PST explained how the verbal prompts
interrupted their teaching:
“I had the ear piece in my ear during this teaching. It was...interesting. It
helped to know how much time I had left but it was distracting when I
was talking to a child or helping them and Sara would say something. It
made me forget what I was saying to the child. I am not sure that I like
it.”
Another PST added, “When someone was talking in my ear when I was talking
it threw me off.” Other comments addressed distractions related to the actual
BIE device. A PST stated, “The cords to the earpiece always seemed to get in my
way.” Similarly, a PST noted, “The ear piece would fall out sometimes and I
thought that took away from the kid’s time,” and “The ear bud was annoying
when constant static was coming through your ear.” Other PST seemed to be
less distracted and made alternative comments such as, “It was a little difficult at
first to adjust to the ear piece being in your ear as you are teaching but
eventually you get used to it and almost do not notice it.”
Theme 3: 50% of the PST gave suggestions to improve implementation.
Comments focused on three main areas including device capability, timing of
verbal prompts, and content of verbal prompts. Concerning device capability,
one PST commented, “I wish it was more like a Bluetooth device so you didn’t
have to worry about the clip and cords.” When considering timing of verbal
prompts a PST remarked, “I think instead of reminding the teacher every
minute…only speak to the teacher if they are not using feedback.” Finally, in
addressing the required content of verbal prompts, one PST explained, “I think
the ear buds are a good idea; however, I think it would be even more helpful if
our partner were able to say anything to us, instead of limiting it to good
movement/good feedback.” Another PST added, “I think it may be a little more
helpful to work on different criteria each week.”
Theme 4: Differences in preference between peer and instructor verbal
cues is included as a theme in part due to an unanticipated absence of comments
by PST. Most PST did not appear to notice differences or mention preference as a
salient factor in their experience using BIE. The four PST that did mention
preference noted partiality to instructor prompts. One PST explained:
“The "Ear-Bud" device was interesting. I liked it the best when I did it
with Dr. Anderson. It helped me keep on my toes about keep moving
around and not just standing in one spot of the room. It also helped with
giving the kids feedback. When I did it with my partner it wasn't as
efficient as doing it with Dr. Anderson.”

8
Another PST concurred by stating, “I liked it the best when I did it with Dr.
Anderson.” A PST added, “It did make me a little more nervous when the
instructor would talk to me but it really made me focus on what I was doing.”
One PST mentioned receiving verbal prompts but was less partial by noting,
“The ear bud was great with either my partner or Dr. Anderson…. I have to
admit that I was pretty nervous when I did it with Dr. Anderson, but that was
expected.”
Discussion
This study confirms prior research on the effectiveness of BIE technology in
teacher preparation settings. Teaching behaviors of PST can be altered when
immediate feedback on teaching performance is given (Coogle, Rahn, & Ottley,
2015; Gibson & Musti-Rao, 2016; Scheeler & Lee, 2002; Scheeler, McAfee, Ruhl, &
Lee, 2006). Specifically, in this study PST were more effective than the control
group in increasing feedback and sector changes when provided with verbal
cues from their instructor or peer using BIE technology. In interviews PST also
identified the importance of immediate feedback on teaching behaviors and
explained that it helped them correct performance in the moment rather than
considering changes at a later date. Similar findings were noted in numerous
teacher preparation studies by Scheeler and colleagues (2006; 2010; 2012), as well
as Rock et al. (2014).
BIE technology poses an assistive measure to promoting effective
teaching behaviors, however as pointed out in interviews by PST in this study,
communicative and technological strategies could be adjusted to ensure that
distraction is less of an issue. Scheeler et al. (2006) noted similar findings and
explained the teacher’s thought process can be interrupted when using BIE,
which could have a negative impact on instruction. One potential suggestion is
to provide verbal prompts when the teacher is not speaking, and timeliest
during a pause immediately following a statement made by the teacher. While
this technique may be more useful to provide less distractions, it does
compromise the systematic nature in data collection of providing feedback in a
precise manner such as the end of each minute. PST also noted the
cumbersomeness of the wires of the BIE receiver, the earpiece falling out, and
occasional static as distractions. An upgrade to more suitable equipment
including a Bluetooth connection is certainly plausible and warranted. Another
suggestion for improvement from PST was to allow verbal prompts on
behaviors other than the specified criteria. Again, this could compromise the
systematic procedures and variables in data collection, however the ability of
novice PST to actively observe and provide appropriate and timely verbal
prompts would be an interesting prospect to explore.
In addition to mirroring the results of effectiveness and restraints of BIE
technology, this study makes a unique contribution to the literature not evident
in past research in that it compares the efficacy of prompts given by either a peer
or instructor. Although significant differences were only found when comparing
instructor cues to the control group for performance feedback, the rate per
minute results were similar for peer and instructor prompts for sector changes

9
(3.55; 3.8) and performance feedback (.85; 1.14) respectively. This finding raises
an important implication for using BIE technology in teacher training,
particularly in teaching methods courses. Typically, the ability of the instructor
to give immediate verbal prompts using BIE technology during a teaching
episode is limited due to the pupil/teacher ratio in the course. Determining that
peers can give comparable verbal prompts to the instructor on specified teaching
criteria is relevant and essential in maximizing effective teacher development.
One caveat to note, is three PST in this study did prefer instructor prompts to
peer prompts, though this preference did not appear to influence performance.
Conclusion
The results of this study show selected teaching behaviors can be increased
when PST receive verbal cues using ear bud devices. However, effectiveness can
vary slightly based on whether cues are given by a peer or instructor. An
increase in targeted teaching behaviors were evident in all three conditions, but
most prevalent with instructor verbal cues. Peer cues also noted an increase in
use of targeted teaching behaviors, but not significantly like the instructor
prompted cues. Overall, interviews showed PST felt positively about their
experience using BIE, but also pointed out how future use could be improved to
provide fewer distractions. Looking forward, even with past research utilizing
wireless devices and video recording to observe teachers’ effectiveness, it is still
unsafe to say if teachers are maintaining the effective behaviors they have
learned. Future research should explore whether pre-service physical education
teachers are retaining and continuing to implement effective teaching behaviors
after intervention has occurred. Lengthening the time of intervention, and re-
evaluating months after intervention may allow PST to show their true
effectiveness in teaching. BIE technology serves as an appropriate
communication device for advancing effective teaching methods in teacher
preparation programs.
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© 2017 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.
The Necessity for Assessment and Management
of Speech, Language and Communication
Needs to Take Account of Cultural and
Multilingual Diversity
Jonathan Glazzard
Leeds Trinity University
Leeds, England
Abstract. This paper argues for the need for a culturally responsive
approach to the identification, assessment and intervention processes for
multilingual children with speech, language and communication
impairment. It highlights the potential for misdiagnosis and identifies
the specific difficulties which may be evident and thus, potential
indicators of language impairment as opposed to language difference.
The paper critiques the standardised tests which are often used by
therapists in the formal diagnosis process and argues that dynamic
assessment offers the best potential for an accurate diagnosis.
Keywords: Inclusion, Speech, Language, Communication.
Introduction
This paper argues for the need for a culturally responsive approach to the
identification, assessment and intervention processes for multilingual children
with speech, language and communication impairment. It highlights the
potential for misdiagnosis and identifies the specific difficulties which may be
evident and thus, potential indicators of language impairment as opposed to
language difference. The paper critiques the standardised tests which are often
used by therapists in the formal diagnosis process and argues that dynamic
assessment offers the best potential for an accurate diagnosis.
Defining Language Impairment and identifying key issues
Ten percent of children in the United Kingdom have speech, language and
communication needs (O’Keefe & Farrugia, 2016). A communication-rich
environment is one of the most effective was of enhancing speech, language and
communication (Glazzard, 2016). Children with speech, language and
communication needs do not necessarily have cognitive delay (Glazzard 2016)
and a range of assessment tools should be used for early identification of need
(NASEN, 2014).

12
Language impairment has been defined as ‘the inability to learn language as
manifested by deficits in expressive and or receptive language skills relative to
age-matched peers who have comparable language exposure’ (Bedore and Pena,
2008: 1). It is a neurodevelopmental disorder (Rice, 2004) which affects
approximately 7% of the population.
Simultaneous bilinguals learn both languages before the age of 3 years (Paradis,
2010). In contrast, sequential bilinguals have their first language (L1) generally
well developed prior to them learning a second language (L2) (Paradis, 2010).
The dominant language is the one to which they have received most exposure.
Development in the second language is not comparable to language
development in age-matched monolingual peers (Bedore and Pena, 2008) and
development in L1 may stall as L2 becomes more complex. Exposure to L2 and
children’s socio-cultural experiences influence language development (Nelson,
1990).
In many countries throughout the world speech and language therapy is a
profession which is characterised by a largely homogenous workforce providing
services to multilingual clients (Caesar and Kohler, 2007). In this context,
therapists face significant challenges in relation to providing a culturally
responsive service and there is limited research with practical significance to
support therapists in overcoming these challenges (Verdon et al, 2015). These
challenges are well-documented in the literature (Caesar and Kohler, 2007;
Guiberson and Atkins, 2012; Williams and McLeod, 2012).
The multilingual population is heterogeneous in that individual circumstances
vary in relation to age of second language acquisition and level of exposure to
language (Paradis et al 2011). There are some differences in the ways in which
monolingual and multilingual children acquire speech and language (Grech and
McLeod, 2012) and these differences can lead to false assumptions that
multilingual children have disordered language and/speech. It is important to
emphasise that if a disorder occurs it will be evident in all languages and not just
the target language (Paradis et al, 2011). If the difficulties exist in only one
language then this is described as a speech/language difference rather than a
disorder (Kohnert, 2010). The speech and language therapist is responsible for
the accurate diagnosis of speech/ language disorder rather than diagnosing a
speech/ language difference. Vocabulary deficits are evident in both languages
when there is evidence of language impairment (Bedore and Pena, 2008),
including expressive and receptive delays.
Delays in grammatical morphology, difficulties in relation to word meaning,
word retrieval and word learning are comparable across languages (Bedore and
Pena, 2008). Multilingual children with language impairment may also produce
qualitatively different errors than the errors made by their monolingual peers
(Bedore and Pena, 2008). This includes verb use (Jacobson and Schwartz, 2005)
and patterns of grammatical production (Restrepo and Kruth, 2000). Identifying
these errors may enable the therapist to make a more accurate diagnosis of
language impairment.

13
The problems with standardised tests: a critique
Speech and language therapists often use standardised tests to determine the
presence of language impairment in combination with other methods (including
observation and interviews). Thus, the validity of such tests is critical for
accurate diagnosis. However, it has been argued that ‘there are few
psychologically sound measures of language development in languages other
than English and few bilingual clinicians’ (Pena et al, 2014: 2218). One of the
pertinent issues documented in the literature is that speech and language
therapists in English speaking countries tend to assess multilingual children’s
speech in English only (Caesar and Kohler, 2007; Williams and McLeod, 2012)
and this can often lead to misdiagnosis (Toohill et al, 2012).
Studies have found evidence of cultural bias in tests (Sattler, 2001). Thus,
cultural content and culturally specific knowledge is often embedded into test
items (Warren, 2006) and this can detrimentally impact on the performance of
children from multilingual backgrounds (Schon et al, 2008). This can result in
the disproportionate representation of students from minority ethnic
backgrounds in special education which has been a concern for over 30 years
(Strand and Lindsay, 2009).
Many standardised tests available for speech and language therapists are
monolingual (Goral and Conner, 2013). The standardised norms are based on
monolingual native speakers of English, whilst some tests are normed with
monolingual speakers of another language (Goral and Conner, 2013). According
to Bedore and Pena (2008) ‘the result is that bilingual children are often
inappropriately compared to a monolingual norm’ (p.19). There are relatively
few standardised tests which provide normative data from multilingual
individuals (Goral and Conner, 2013) and given the heterogeneous nature of the
multilingual population it would be extremely challenging to be able to find a
test which is based on normative data which matches the multilingual
individual being tested. Most tests are normed on monolingual individuals
(McLeod and Verdon, 2014), which calls into question the validity of the results
when the test is used on someone who is multilingual. There are also specific
debates about the language proficiency of those administering the tests and the
acceptability of code-switching during the assessment (Goral and Conner, 2013).
There are few bilingual clinicians (Pena et al, 2014) which automatically places
this group at a disadvantage.
To address some of these issues the use of translation in test adaption and the
development of local norms are common solutions (Bedore and Pena, 2008; Stow
and Dodd, 2003; Taylor and Payne, 1983). However, these solutions are not
unproblematic. Direct translation of tests into other languages assumes that
language development is consistent across languages, which cannot be assumed
(Bedore and Pena, 2008). Although there are similarities in language acquisition
across languages there are differences which can affect test performance (Bedore

14
and Pena, 2008). For example, research has found that prepositions are more
difficult in Spanish than in English (Zimmerman et al, 2002).
Additionally, although translated tests may target linguistic forms of language
impairment in the source language, they may omit aspects of the target language
that might potentially differentiate between children with and without language
impairment (for example, vocabulary use and narrative components) (Bedore
and Pena, 2008). This is likely to be the case if item selection on tests is guided by
the difficulties that children typically experience in the source language. When
tests are adapted from English to other languages the markers of language
impairment in the target language are often not addressed (Bedore and Pena,
2008).
Most tests of language ability in English fail to meet the criteria for accurate
diagnosis of language impairment (Spaulding et al, 2006). Tests which do
accurately meet the criteria for accurate diagnosis select the items that children
with language impairment find the most difficult (Perona et al, 2005). Most
vocabulary tasks are not sufficiently challenging (Bedore and Pena, 2008
Dynamic Assessment
Dynamic Assessment (DA) has been recommended as a strategy for assessing
speech, language and communication needs in children from linguistically and
culturally diverse populations (Hasson and Joffe, 2007). This approach is
considered to minimise assessment bias due to lack of exposure to language
(Laing and Kamhi, 2003) because the approach does not measure static
knowledge which is subject to linguistic and cultural bias (Pena et al, 2014).
Instead, DA focuses on the learning process rather than norm comparisons (Pena
et al, 2014). It is the most commonly applied assessment approach for assessing
children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds (Laing and
Kamhi, 2003) and research has suggested the value of this approach in assessing
word learning (Pena et al, 2001), narrative production (Kramar et al, 2009) and
categorisation (Ukrainetz et al, 2000).
According to Goral and Conner (2013: 132) ‘Dynamic assessment is a promising
tool for differentiating multilingual children with PLI (Primary Language
Impairment) from [those with] TLD (Typical Language Development) . Static
assessment may not be accurate because multilingual children may demonstrate
a wide range of performance in their current linguistic skills (Goral and Conner,
2013). Multilingual children may demonstrate a wide range of achievement in
reaching typical developmental milestones (Goral and Conner, 2013) and
achievement can be influenced by variables including age, language status,
language input, pattern of exposure (sequential or simultaneous) and frequency
of exposure (Goral and Conner, 2013). Therefore separating multilingual
children with typical and atypical language development is inherently complex
(Goral and Conner, 2013) and tenuous (Anderson and Marquez, 2009) because
there may be overlap in errors between the two groups, for example in article
use.

15
Dynamic assessment essentially measures the rate of change in performance
(Goral and Conner, 2013) and information about the learning strategies
employed by the child. Children with primary language impairment for
example may attend to different features of words (Goral and Conner, 2013)
compared to typically developing children and this may lead to more accurate
identification of multilingual children with primary language impairment (Alt
and Suddarth, 2012). Research has found that multilingual children with
primary language impairment switched between languages more frequently
than typically developing bilingual children (IIuz-Cohen and Walters, 2012).
Additionally, this research found that multilingual children with primary
language impairment code-switched twice as frequently from L2 to L1 than from
L1 to L2 in contrast with typically developing bilinguals who code-switched
equally in either direction (IIuz-Cohen and Walters, 2012). Dynamic assessment
makes it possible to identify these errors as well as providing an indication of
the rate of change in performance over time.
Children with primary language impairment are often partly due to
inefficiencies in memory and attention (Gillam et al, 2009; Pena et al, 2014).
Dynamic assessment which incorporates clinical observation of strategy use as
children are actively engaged in language learning can help to differentiate
between multilingual children with language impairment and those who are
typically developing. Attention and memory processes can then be
systematically observed over time when children being to retell longer and more
complex narratives (Pena et al, 2014). Dynamic assessment enables the clinician
to gain insights into the learning behaviours of multilingual children with
language impairment, thus making it possible to identify the underlying nature
of children’s language difficulties and hence, their intervention needs (Pena et al,
2014).
Working in partnership with families: developing cultural
responsiveness
The Code of Practice for Special Educational Needs and Disabilities (DFE, 2014)
emphasises the importance of establishing effective partnerships with parents
and carers at all stages of the process. These stages form part of a graduated
response (DFE, 2014) which includes the following processes: identification and
assessment of need; target setting; supporting the child to meet these targets;
reviewing and evaluating progress. It is perhaps pertinent to note that parental
referral to speech and language services is greater for monolingual children than
it is for multilingual children (Stow & Dodds, 2005) so it is critical to ensure that
parents are informed about the availability of services in their communities.
It is critical that speech and language therapists are able to demonstrate cultural
understanding to enable them to work effectively with different cultural groups
(Bellon-Harn and Garrett, 2008). The starting point for this is for therapists to
develop an awareness of their own cultural assumptions and to increase their
knowledge of the values held by different cultural groups (Garrett & Pichette,
2000). This will enable therapists to understand more accurately the specific

16
barriers to developing effective parent partnerships. However, it cannot be
assumed that values are shared across a cultural group. Therapists should
therefore be willing to engage in cultural conversations with families in order to
help them understand the cultural values that clients hold.
The professional values of a therapist may not align with traditional family
values. Whilst the therapist may view speech, language and communication
difficulties as requiring specific intervention, family members may view these
needs as an essential part of the child’s identity (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008).
Some cultural groups do not believe that they have a right to interfere with the
child’s biological characteristics and may seek spiritual intervention rather than
clinical intervention (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008) to help the child. Other
cultures may believe that clinical intervention may be counter-productive to the
development of a positive and productive life (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008).
Clearly, where cultural and professional values clash, the speech and language
therapist plays a critical mediating role to help family members understand the
necessity for clinical intervention. Some cultural groups may be reluctant for
therapists to refer to child onto additional services due to fears that this might
make the problem worse and they may believe that the problem will resolve
itself (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008). In cases like this it is critical that the
therapist establishes positive relationships with families in order to gain their
permission for referral (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008).
It is critical that the therapist develops a level of cultural understanding when
working with clients from different cultures to enable them to manage the
process of clinical intervention with cultural sensitivity and empathy. In this
respect therapists need to understand traditional cultural values which will
inevitably determine which family members are included in the process. Some
cultures retain strong gender roles and this often determines who makes key
decisions within the family. In Latino families the father is usually responsible
for making decisions without any consultation with other family members
(Brice, 2002). In African American cultures decision making processes are
usually collaborative and involve all family members (Terrell & Hale, 1992).
Native Americans place more emphasis on the role of women and elders as
decision-makers (Portman & Garrett, 2005). For the therapist, understanding
these cultural values will help them to decide who should be involved in the
consultation process (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008). This process can take time
and might involve an element of family counselling and therapists may
therefore need to exercise a degree of patience whilst families come to terms
with this.
Once decision-makers have been established, the therapist needs to develop
cultural understanding about the level of involvement that families might wish
to have. In some Latino and Asian cultures the family may prefer to leave formal
decision-making up to the therapist (Chan, 1998; Roseberry-McKibbin, 1995).
Some Asian parents are less assertive and may prefer the therapist to work as an
advocate in the best interests of the family (Huang, et al, 2004). In contrast
research has indicated that first generation Chinese families may expect to be

17
advocates for their child and play a full role in any decision-making processes
(Parette, Chuang & Huer, 2004).
In addition to the dilemmas outlined is also the issue of how clinicians
communicate with family members from different cultural groups (Barerra &
Corso, 2002). Attitudes to non-verbal forms of communication (for example, eye-
contact, hand-shaking, and proxemics) can vary across cultures (Adler,
Rosenfeld and Towne, 1989), as can attitudes to verbal communication. In some
cultures laughter and humour are critical to communication (Garrett et al, 2005)
whilst silence may be valued in other cultures. Some cultural groups may prefer
the clinician to communicate with them in writing (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008),
although literacy levels need to be taken into account. Conversely, other cultures
may prefer oral communication rather than written communication (Sileo &
Prater, 1998).
Essentially, families need to trust the therapist. They need to be able to trust that
the therapist is working in their child’s best interests (Bellon-Harn & Garrett,
2008). Therapists can establish this trust by explaining to families why specific
interventions are needed. In the absence of this understanding, cultural mistrust
can develop (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008) and families may choose not to
participate in interventions which should be carried out in the home (Kaylanpur
et al, 2000). Although families may not openly challenge the therapist for fear of
being viewed as disrespectful (Hwa-Froelich & Wesby, 2003), cultural mistrust
can manifests itself in families not complying with the recommendations made
by the therapist. There is also potential for families to misinterpret the
recommendations, resulting in families implementing interventions in the home
in ways which do not address the identified need.
Families from some cultural groups are likely to find the experience of working
with a speech and language therapist stressful (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008).
Some of this stress may be caused by families not understanding what the
therapist is attempting to achieve. Additionally, families may not understand
how the clinical intervention will support the child in achieving long-term
aspirations which families have for their child. The therapist therefore has a
critical role to play in establishing positive relationships based on trust,
sensitivity and empathy. The therapist should always seek to minimise stress for
families by explaining clearly how the intervention will benefit the child. The
importance of therapists listening actively and attentively to multilingual
parents has been emphasised in the literature (Verdon et al, 2015), including the
need for the therapist to gain specific knowledge of dialectal variations (Verdon
et al, 2015). Ultimately, the family, their culture and associated values, will
determine what they want for their child (Bellon-Harn & Garrett, 2008).
Involving families in open discussions which provide them with opportunities
to share their own views and experiences of their child is one way of ensuring
that therapists deliver a culturally responsive service (Sue & Sue, 2003).
Intervention

18
The impact of interventions can be maximised if the home language is used as
the language of instruction (Kohnert et al, 2005). Additionally, intervention in all
languages spoken has been found to have the greatest impact (Paradis et al,
2011). The choice of intervention and approach to delivering it will be influenced
by the therapist’s ability to deliver an intervention in the home language
(Kritikos, 2003) and the availability of bilingual staff to support the therapist in
administering the intervention (Verdon et al, 2015). A community-based
approach to intervention, where assessment and intervention take place in the
community, outside the clinical setting, may help parents to feel safe and valued
(Verdon et al, 2015) and may also address issues such as low-referral rates ( Stow
& Dodd, 2003; 2005) and non-participation in intervention.
Conclusion
This paper has argued that difficulties in relation to speech, language and
communication impairment are evident in both the home language (L1) and the
target language (L2) and therefore assessments of children’s performance in both
languages is necessary for an accurate assessment. The paper has also argued
that proficiency in L2 is affected by variables such as type and length of
exposure to the second language as well as the age of the child and dynamic
rather than static assessment enables therapists to ascertain the rate of progress
over time as well as making it possible to assess language use within social and
cultural contexts. This paper argues that therapists need to develop cultural
knowledge, sensitivity and empathy when working with clients from
multilingual populations. Values in relation to intervention may not be shared
across cultures and the therapist will need to convince the family that
intervention is necessary to support the child. This process is not unproblematic,
given that families may be suspicious about the therapist’s motivations.
However, a complete assessment cannot take place without including the
perspectives of the parents. This paper has argued that therapists may wish to
consider adopting a community approach to assessment and identification in
order to support parents through the graduated response.
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22
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy on Employment
Development of Individuals with Disabilities
Li Ju Chen
Chang Gung University
Taoyuan, Taiwan
Abstract. This article considers the factors that contribute to
being employed for the individuals with disabilities (IWDs).
There are two dimensions that are commonly mentioned
about the factors underlying IWDs poor employment
performance, one is society factor, the other is IWD’s
personal physiological conditions. However, this article
claims it can be viewed from an alternative perspective. The
mechanism responsible for this can be explained by the
self-fulfilling prophecy: with a conviction of being accepting by
society and the employment market (ASE), an IWD has more
opportunities to obtain a job a short time after graduation.
Based on self-fulfilling prophecy effect, this article proposes
implications of employment transition services for IWDs.
Keywords: individuals with disabilities; employment;
self-fulfilling prophecy; transition services
Introduction
Low employment of IWDs (Individuals with disabilities) is a problem prevalent
in many countries all over the world. In the United States, 81 per cent of the
overall population were employed, compared to only 32 per cent of IWDs
(Carter et al., 2010). A survey of the Association of Graduate Careers Advisory
Services in England noted that most IWD graduates were less able to enter into
professional and full time employment than the general working-age population
(Piggott & Houghton, 2007). In Taiwan, 22.5 per cent of IWDs over 15 years of
age were employed while the unemployment rate was 4.14 per cent for all adults
(Yang, 2009). Compared with the general working-age population, the poor
employment achievement of IWDs is a concern in many countries (Carter et al.,
2010; Ju et al., 2012; Piggott & Houghton, 2007). Is lower employment rate the
fate of IWDs?
There are two dimensions that are commonly mentioned about the factors
underlying IWDs poor employment performance. The first dimension is the
barriers caused by personal physiological conditions, including the level and
category of the disability. If the disability status is the only critical factor in poor
rates of gaining employment, there appears to be a direct explanation: the IWD’s

23
disability has undoubtedly caused the obstacles to employment; The second
dimension involves the social factors including social unwelcoming conditions
that make IWDs encounter unfair employment situations. Given these two
conditions, which one cannot change, the IWDs have an inevitable result of poor
employment status and there is no need for IWDs to make efforts to improve
their employment potential; welfare policies are the best and only solution.
However, it was agreed that policy intervention is not the fine solution. On the
other side, it was found that an IWD’s internal conviction of being accepted by
society and the employment market (ASE) is the real impact factor of an IWD’s
employment status (Chen, 2015). The research provides support for the
‘self-fulfilling prophecy’ phenomenon which has been advocated in the
humanities and social sciences in past decades. This article describes the
self-fulfilling prophecy mechanism applied to IWDs’ potential employment, and
guides readers to another perspective on interpreting IWDs’ employment
predicaments.
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
In 1928, W. I. Thomas proposed a sociological perspective idea that was later
conceptualised as a ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’: the situation finally realised into
the true when a person defined an affair is that meaning. What a person expects
in advance is what he or she subsequently realises. Outcomes are associated
with one’s expectations. This argument was much questioned initially: could an
incorrect belief identified at the beginning actually become true in the
consequence just because many people believed it, or because the incorrect belief
was very strong (Wineburg, 1987)? It was with none scientific justification. In
1948, when Robert K. Merton first proposed the term self-fulfilling prophecy, the
theoretical concept was systematically developed. Since the 1980s, many
scholars and practitioners have believed that the self-fulfilling prophecy is a
considerable force and a widespread phenomenon in society (Madon et al., 1997).
Since then, this ‘magical’ viewpoint has been widely discussed in the stock
market, the state of war, crime, etc., and has branched out into the fields of
economics, psychology, politics, education and elsewhere.
Thomas (1928) and Merton (1948) explained how the self-fulfilling prophecy
works from a psychological viewpoint. According to Merton:
Men respond not only to the objective features of a situation, but also,
and at times primarily, to the meaning this situation has for them. And
once they have assigned some meaning to the situation, their
consequent behaviour and some of the consequences of that behaviour
are determined by the ascribed meaning. (p. 194)
Thomas (1928) and Merton (1948) stated that once a meaning was attached to a
situation, one’s subsequent behavior and its consequences were affected by the
meaning attributed. Merton pointed out that when a mistaken belief is held by a
person or a group of people, the mistaken belief becomes true in the end. This
rule can explain social issues, including the financial meltdown, medical effects
and racial discrimination problems.
A self-fulfilling prophecy has two dimensions: one is that social beliefs, whether
true or false, lead to the masses following blindly; an incorrect evaluation
towards an event or person by the group encourages people to think in a
particular way. The common expectations allow for potential social mobility and

24
then affects individuals’ actions. Social beliefs ultimately create the results
expected by the majority. Another dimension of self-fulfilling prophecy is
personal inner conviction; this inherent belief is moulded by prevailing social
beliefs or by self-criticism. In either case, it will affect the individual’s intrinsic
motivation to act, deprive of his or her activities and eventually affect the
performance outcome. Although one’s individual actions is impacted by his or
her belief directly in this process, actions are still profoundly impacted by the
belief in the society. As shown in Figure 1, A impacts B, and B impacts C; this
appears as a series of impacts. Here is thinking about whether it is possible to
skip A and examine the impact of B on C directly. The self-fulfilling prophecy
effect on the outcome of an event will have a different meaning.
Figure 1: The impact of belief on action and its outcome
The Factors of an IWD’s Employment
The barriers caused by disabilities either directly or indirectly affect an IWD’s
progress in employment. These obstacles include the following.
Physiological Conditions
Personal physiological conditions such as disability type and level are thought of
as obstacles to one’s employment. Individuals with mild or physical disabilities
have better development while individuals with severe disabilities, emotional
disabilities, mental disabilities or multiple disabilities have poorer performance
(Carter et al., 2010; Winn & Hay, 2009). If the physiological obstacle is the cause
of poor development, IWDs will attain limited progress in employment as the
disability condition is hard to change and it is meaningless to work hard.
However, some studies have suggested that no relationship exists between
employment status and physiological conditions for IWDs (Chen 2013; Bishop,
2005).
Social Conditions
Much of the discussion on social conditions is about discrimination (Ju et al.,
2012; Piggott & Houghton, 2007; Roessler et al., 2007). These studies have
repeatedly pointed out that discrimination and prejudiced attitudes towards
IWDs result in severely impaired social participation, which is the critical reason
for IWDs’ poor gaining employment. To protect IWDs employment rights, many
countries have set up social welfare policies, or job rights protection regulations
to promote IWDs’ employment opportunities. At present, welfare and rights
C
Individual
performance
outcome
A
Social belief
Mass mobility
B
Individual belief
信念
Individual action
行動

25
policies for the promotion of IWDs’ employment, such as the 1963 Vocational
Education Act, and the 1984 Developmental Disabilities Assistance and Bill of
Rights Act in the United States, and the Disability Welfare Act in 1980 in Taiwan,
have been in place for decades. However, these policies still cannot completely
resolve the obstacles to IWDs gaining employment (Chen, 2015; Winn & Hay,
2009). So far the employment rate of IWDs is much lower than that of the
average person. Clearly, social welfare policy alone is still not the only solution
to IWDs’ employment issues.
State of Mind
Scholars believe that the social support system and ASE are important factors for
developing IWDs’ employment potential (Roessler et al., 2007; Winn & Hay,
2009). IWDs may believe that society has not accepted them and shape negative
self-expectations during the seeking employment process (Hopkins, 2011).
Hopkins pointed out that an IWD’s expectation is affected by the experiences of
disability sake. In addition, IWDs may believe that the IWD welfare and rights
protection policies mean that they are a social burden and make less
contribution to society. Holding this belief strengthens their convictions about
community charity and leads to a negative mental state.
Actions of IWDs
The actions of IWDs are affected by their disabilities, which thereby affects their
progress in employment (Chen, 2013; Babbitt & White, 2002).
1. Disability itself: Strauser et al. (2006) found that IWDs believed
disabilities had a great impact on their career orientation. Hitchings et al.
(2001) indicated that the disability type and its severity affected one's
performance. Impairments such as physical disabilities, hearing
impairments and severe learning disabilities often placed restrictions on
movement and reduced exploratory behaviour in career development.
2. Academic performance: Some IWDs do not perform well in academic
settings. They may have a comprehensive cognitive disability or have
restrictions in learning inputs such as auditory stimuli, visual cues or
operating performance. These often result in IWDs having poor academic
or professional achievement that affects their career development.
3. Career activities: As with most people, IWDs who had a clear goal or took
aggressive action towards their potential career had clearer career
orientations and better achievement (Hitchings et al., 2001). These actions
were encouraged in a career exploration process that included career
scaling, workplace visits or gaining work experiences (Alverson et al.,
2010). Employers often worry about IWDs’ work ability and this reduces
their willingness to hire. Without work experience to prove work ability,
IWDs will limit their employment opportunities (Kang et al., 2010; Piggott
& Houghton, 2007; Winn & Hay, 2009). IWDs often take time for medical
treatment or resist taking action because of psychological problems. These
factors reduce positive actions in IWDs’ professional life (Chen, 2015;
Piggott & Houghton, 2007).
From one point of view, IWDs’ employment status is impacted by their
disabilities: disabilities impact on social opportunities, personal psychological

26
states and the actions that determine individual employability and subsequent
employment achievements. However, from another angle, one should not look
at how the disability is an obstacle to social survival opportunities or its effects
on employment, but instead look at how employment achievement is impacted
by personal mental states and their related actions. Figure 2 shows a similar, but
more nuanced perspective than Figure 1, where A has an impact on B, and B has
an impact on C. It is feasible to see the impact of B on C directly. If the social
conditions are set aside, it is possible to review how an IWD’s action directly
impacts on his or her employment activities. A surprising argument can be
made concerning the self-fulfilling prophecy, which offers an analysis that goes
beyond the traditional view of employment development.

27
The Effect of the Self-fulfilling Prophecy on IWDs’ Employment
When an IWD transits from school to the employment market, his or her
anticipation of ASE was found to influence his or her development greatly
(Hopkins, 2011). Carter et al. (2010) noted that IWDs’ beliefs whether society
accepts them is the critical issue affecting their employment performance and
career progression. The thoughts eventually becomes realized in accord with the
self-fulfilling prophecy. In the self-fulfilling prophecy, the IWDs’ employment
development may be divided into four steps (see Figure 3):
Belief of Acceptance Shaping
Most people develop a negative belief – ‘I am not accepted by the society’ – think
themselves cannot integrate into the community to which they belong. Roessler
and colleagues (2007) found that people try to contribute to the society in order
to obtain positive attitudes from the community. For the sake of gaining the
benefits of well-being policies, IWDs may define of themselves as vulnerable in
society; which makes them more sensitive to doubting whether society accepts
them with sincerity. One study found that 27.8 per cent of IWDs before
graduation, and 20.8 per cent of IWDs after graduation think of themselves as
accepted by society. These perceptions did not vary by gender, disability
category, disability level or academic achievement (Chen, 2015). When other
IWDs shared their perception that there is discrimination in society against
IWDs, or that workplaces regard IWDs as with poor abilities, then their belief in
society acceptance tends to be negative. Individuals will hold negative attitudes
towards opportunities to enter the workplace and negative expectations towards
his or her performance outcomes.
Madon et al. (1997) pointed out that when teachers teach for students with low
academic achievement with much unpleasant learning experiences over a long
time, these students will have low self-affirmation. Madon et al. explained that
for these students, lack of friendliness in the environment made satisfactory
learning performance more difficult to achieve. Jussim et al. (1996) found that
African-Americans, individuals with low socioeconomic status and those with
low academic achievement are more intensely affected by the self-fulfilling
prophecy than others. These students are more sensitive to the strong messages
generated by the mechanism of the self-fulfilling prophecy. The self-fulfilling
Figure 2: How disability impacts IWDs’ employment development
Employability
Employment
outcome
Disability
type
level
B
Psychology
Action
A
C
Social conditions

28
prophecy effect occurs more severely in IWDs because they have greater
sensitivity about feeling accepted.
Beliefs Impact Employability
One’s mental state affects knowledge and attitudes, and thereby changes one’s
actions; these actions ultimately have an impact on progress in employment. If
an IWD thinks the labour market accepts them, he or she will be confident that
the opportunity exists to obtain the same results as a person without disabilities.
One will make efforts to acquire employment and contribute to society. On the
other hand, if an IWD believes that society has negative attitudes and is
unfriendly, he or she may believe there are no opportunities to achieve and
intends to give up working hard to avoid wasting time. The individual then
takes passive action and is unable to raise employability. It is found that in this
case, progress in employment was not optimal, and the barriers to action were
more intense (Madon et al., 1997). Further research found that no matter what
the disability was, when an IWD felt high ASE, his or her actions were no
different from the general population: aggressively cultivated their
employability, captured employment information, and developed their
job-seeking strategies. They experienced considerable confidence about their
futures while at school, which made them take more positive actions; they also
did not ask for much welfare support from the government and pursued a high
quality of life. On the other hand, those IWDs who thought ASE is low gave up
on working hard in order to achieve more meaningful survival. Given the reality
they perceived, most did not rely on working hard but instead hoped to access
employment-related social welfare, and were less concerned about cultivating
employability (Chen, 2013).
Wineburg (1987) pointed out that when an IWD has received the message from
society that he or she is subordinate, that person will feel themselves to be poor
and their performance will be poor. The perceptions of the general public
inculcate profound values into one’s mind (Clark, 1955, p. 50, cited in Wineburg,
1987), thereby affecting the IWDs’ actions. As Wineburg stated, the effects move
from ‘out there’ in society to inside individuals’ minds and become ‘embedded
in the personality’ aided by the mechanism of the self-fulfilling prophecy (p. 28).
In this effect of the self-fulfilling prophecy, expectation is an important element
that profoundly impacts one’s next action. The direction of behaviour is not only
caused by psychological factors, but also by practical considerations of survival.
Although the perception may be wrong and the expectations unreasonable, the
self-fulfilling prophecy effect still has a considerable impact on employment.
Employability Impacts on Performance Outcomes
Same with other people, an IWD’s attitude has an impact on his or her efforts in
employment; this affects employability and eventually affects employment
outcomes. It leads some people to enter into the job market, while others have
greater difficulty. According to a study in Taiwan (Chen, 2015), 40.4 per cent of
college students with disabilities got a job after graduating if, when they were
still in school, they believed ASE of IWDs was low. In contrast, 80.0 per cent of
college students with disabilities got a job after graduating if they believed ASE
of IWDs was high when they were still in school. The latter figure is close to the

29
general college graduates’ employment rate of 83.5 per cent in Taiwan (Chen,
2015; Ministry of Education, 2006). If IWDs considered themselves unaccepted
by society and the workplace, they reduced their efforts and were less
employable, which resulted in difficulties in acquiring a job. Given the
self-fulfilling prophecy effect, ASE was not a direct cause in gaining a job or not;
rather it was the action formed by the beliefs that affected an IWD’s
employability, and thereby affected their employment outcomes.
Outcomes Strongly Affect Convictions
The experience of entering the job market or working in the workplace continues
to have an impact on IWDs’ convictions concerning ASE of IWDs. If an IWD has
a negative belief originally, bad personal experience in the workplace makes the
belief in non-acceptance stronger: ‘This society considers an IWD incompetent’
or ‘I was rejected no matter how hard I work.’ This belief then has an impact on
subsequent actions, and repeatedly affects employment performance, which
goes into circulation. As Wineburg (1987) put it, the inferior feelings have been
formed and will be continued. The public’s conviction that IWDs are
characterised by their poor employability has fostered a widespread social norm
in society that has a recurring influence on IWDs’ progress in employment
generation after generation.
Chen’s follow up study found that one year after graduating from college, there
was a marked change in the person’s beliefs about ASE of IWDs: for the IWDs
who did not gain a job after graduating, 100 per cent of those who had thought
that there was high ASE of IWDs before graduation, changed into holding a
belief in low acceptance after graduating. However, no one who believed low
ASE of IWDs before graduation changed into believing that ASE of IWDs was
high; For the IWDs who acquired a job after graduating, 37.5 per cent, who
thought there was high ASE before graduating, came to believe there was low
ASE. Only 9.5 per cent, who believed low ASE of IWDs before graduation came
to believe high ASE of IWDs after graduation (Chen, 2015). These findings show
that after the IWDs left formal education, their experiences were likely to create
more negative beliefs. This phenomenon may be because they themselves had
bad experienced. Thus the conviction held about IWDs’ employability spreads to
the social environment, where it has a specific impact on other IWDs entering
the labour market. The prophecy has a circular impact on society (see Figure 3)
and profound impacts on the IWDs in their search for employment.

30
Attitudes
Plans
Strategies
Actions
Expectations
Employment Transition Service
IWDs’ beliefs are influenced by others’ discriminatory stereotypes in society,
which cause reciprocal feelings among IWDs and have an impact on IWDs’
expectations of the future. According to the self-fulfilling prophecy, these
feelings are sufficient to make IWDs isolate themselves from the crowd and
develop differently from others in employment. Wineburg (1987) pointed out
that the effects of the self-fulfilling prophecy process are caused by
environmental issues and the individual’s convictions; those who do not have
positive expectations are sacrificed in the social structure, IWDs are innocent.
Because of the self-fulfilling prophecy on IWDs’ employment, the employment
transition service offers a new perspective: although disabilities create some
barriers for IWDs, people are able to develop their employment resources
despite their disabilities. This perspective creates another opportunity: Other
than a victim in society, IWDs’ progress in employment is mainly restricted by
themselves. As long as IWDs do not place limits on themselves by thinking
themselves inferior before taking actions, they can develop their employment in
the same ways as other people. The key point is whether a person is aggressively
undertaking activities to develop job skills and get ahead in finding and keeping
employment. An employment transition service for IWDs can offer the following
assistance.
Changes in the External Social Environment
Prejudices and stereotypes in society led some groups to be underestimated and
subjected to uneven treatment (Madon et al., 1997). A social responsibility
viewpoint as O’Hara noted in 2004: It is the first thing in a transition service’s
policy to change people’s attitudes to reduce workplace discrimination against
IWDs. This was quite a humanism concept in rehabilitation innovations. This
Employability
Figure 3: Self-fulfilling prophecy concerning IWDs’ progress in employment
Employmentoutcome
Society
expectancy
Selfconcept
Beliefinsociety’sacceptance
Outside
information
Inside
cognition
Self concept
Personal
experience
Society’s
expectations

31
phenomenon needs recognition in national policy to uphold justice and
encourage society to have more reasonable expectations and positive attitudes
about IWDs (Eden, 1986). Employment supports in the social environment are
expected to be consistent with the first chapter of the ‘Americans with
Disabilities Act’ which states avoiding workplace discrimination against IWDs,
and allow them to reasonably obtain and retain employment (Roessler et al.,
2007). In such a policy, employers are guided to understand IWDs’ abilities, and
to eliminate inappropriate attitudes so that IWDs make efforts without the
hesitation to promote their employability and enhance their employment
opportunities.
Perceived and Addressed Personal Beliefs
It is difficult to change external conditions, so transition services should focus on
IWDs’ attitudes, living strategies or life plans to cope with unfavourable external
conditions. Scholars have advocated that there should be a curriculum to help
those who suffer from the negative impact of the self-fulfilling prophecy to
change their feelings into positive beliefs of themselves (Farmer, Allsopp, &
Ferron, 2015; Marburger, 1963, cited in Wineburg, 1987). Another critical
program is to improve self-determination and to promoting successful
transitions (Farmer et al., 2015). When an IWD thinks he or she is not accepted
by society, the service should identify the circumstances and guide the
individual to adjust their attitude and cope with the social reality; this would
minimise the impact of social rejection. Helping IWDs to avoid
misunderstanding and negative behaviours but with self-confidence in response
to social attitudes and social discrimination will help them attain better
employment prospects.
Enhancing the Individual’s Employability
In the process of the self-fulfilling prophecy, social conscience and self-concept
shape personal conviction. Social conscience is part of popular convictions and is
difficult for an individual to change. Self-concept can be adjusted by personal
experience, achievement and thinking, which can be controlled by an individual.
Madon et al. (1997) pointed out that when an IWD’s awareness of the
environment is consistent with his or her personal self-concept, the self-fulfilling
effect will be more intense. That is, if an IWD believes society think IWDs are
poor performers, and they also think of themselves in this way, then the
predicted effects of poor performance are very likely to occur. On the other hand,
if one believes that society thinks IWDs are poor performers, but one does not
think that of oneself, the predicted effects of poor performance will be less. An
IWD is able to have more confidence in meeting employment conditions with
high employability even if he or she think the external environment holds
negative expectations about IWDs. The negative self-fulfilling prophecy effect is
then reduced. Therefore it is a very good strategy to aggressively cultivate
employability, for example, to perceive and find work opportunity (Martini, &
Cavenago, 2017) will make the students have more opportunities to successfully
transition from school to employment (Wehman, Sima, Ketchum, West, Chan, &
Luecking, 2015). It will encourage IWDs to hold a positive self-concept that will
enhance their opportunity to enter the job market.

32
Conclusion
IWDs’ employment issues were much discussed according to the social model
that has prevailed in past decades. It is thought that others’ prejudices against
IWDs have created barriers and discrimination, resulting in difficulties for IWDs
to participate fully in society. Unwelcoming and inadequately accessible
facilities among employers have led IWDs to have much lower employment
rates than the others. This article does not deny that these social factors have an
impact on IWDs’ employment. However, the history of the social factors
involved is a long one, and difficult for individuals to confront. For social
changes to give IWDs fair employment conditions, IWDs should patiently look
forward to the government establishing employment policies that initiates
public acceptance, at least, with apparent acceptance. On the other hand, a factor
which an individual can control is keeping any negative attitudes to himself or
herself away. According to research and the self-fulfilling prophecy, it seems
that IWDs’ negative self-perceptions and projections lead to their employment
prospects being difficult to develop. Therefore, changing the individual’s
attitude is the most direct and promising strategy for promoting IWD progress
in employment.
A statistic shows that from 1985, when the self-fulfilling prophecy was first
analysed and discussed, nearly 400 related articles explored the effects of
self-fulfilling prophecy in educational environments (Wineburg, 1987). Now, 30
years later, this topic is discussed in depth in other disciplines. However, the
self-fulfilling prophecy was never applied to IWDs’ poor employment
performance issues. The employment research pointed out that there is a
significant relationship between IWDs successful employment after graduation
and their convictions about ASE of IWDs before graduating. Of course, this
conviction is not a direct factor concerning whether a person is successfully
employed, but it is the driving force behind working hard or giving up. Thus
shaping one’s employability differently and shape a different performance
outcome in the workplace. In an employment transition service, IWDs should
actively establish themselves as moving forward. To motivate IWDs to actively
cultivate employability, namely, to strengthen the link between B and C in
Figures 1 and 2, IWDs need to expect promising employment development.
As an advocate in Reader’s Digest once said: ‘Self-fulfilling prophecy – the key
to success. It was proved this magical power can greatly enhance one to have the
intelligence, willpower and competitiveness to the success. The secret is: to
expect’ (P34, Good & Brophy, 1977, cited in Wineburg, 1987). An individual’s
behaviour tends to be influenced by his or her personal conviction: If a person
thinks of oneself as others think of him (or her), that is what he (or she) becomes.
References
Alverson, C. Y., Naranjo, J. M., Yamamoto, S., & Unruh, D. (2010). Methods for collecting
post school outcomes data on young adults with disabilities: A literature synthesis.
Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 33, 155–164.
Babbitt, B. C., &White, C. M. (2002). R U ready? Helping students assess their readiness
for postsecondary education. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35, 62–66.
Bishop, M. (2005). Quality of life and psychosocial adaptation to chronic illness and
disability: Preliminary analysis of a conceptual and theoretical synthesis.

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