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TOEFL: Structure and Written
        Expression
General Strategies
• Be familiar with the directions.
• Begin with questions 1-15 (Structure). Questions
  1-5 are easier and 11-15 are harder.
• Continue with questions 16-40 (Written
  Expression). Questions 16-20 are easier and 36-
  40 are harder.
• Do not take too much time with each item. If you
  have time left you can go back and check 11-15
  and 36-40.
• Do not leave any blank answers on the answer
  sheet.
Strategies for Structure Questions
• First, study the sentence.
• Then study each answer choice based on how well it
  completes the sentence.
• Do not try to eliminate incorrect options by looking only
  at the answers.
• Be aware that in this section most of the items will
  require you to identify the subject or the verb (or both) in
  the correct order of subject + verb (except on items with
  inverted structure).
• Do not spend too much time on this section. Leave
  enough time for the Written Expression Section.
Characteristics of a Sentence
• A sentence can be formed by one or more clauses.
• Clauses can be independent and dependent/subordinate
  clauses. All sentences must have subject and verb.
• Sentences can be: simple, compound, complex, and
  compound-complex.
• A simple sentence is formed by only one independent
  clause.

     I went to the movies yesterday afternoon.
     Independent clause
•   A compound sentence is formed by two or more independent
    clauses connected by coordinate conjunctions (for, and, nor,
    but, or, yet, so: FANBOYS).

    I went to the movies last night, and I had a great time.
    Independent clause           conjunction + Ind. clause


•   A complex sentence is formed by one independent clause and
    one or more dependent clauses.

    I went to the movies after I had finished my homework.
    Independent Clause   connector + Dependent Clause
•   A compound-complex sentence is formed by more than one
    independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

    I went to the movies, and I had a great time because the movie
    Indep. Clause       conj. +   Indep. Clause +   connector + Dep. Cl.
    was terrific.
Characteristics of a Clause
• Every clause must have a subject and a verb. A
  complement is optional.
• There are two types of clauses: independent and
  dependent (or subordinated).
• Independent clauses have a complete idea and
  can stand alone in a sentence.
• Dependent clauses complement the
  independent clause, but do not have a complete
  idea and cannot stand alone in a sentence.
• There are three types of dependent clauses:
• Noun clauses: function as a noun, so they can be
  subjects, objects of a verb, or objects of a preposition.
      I understand how you feel.
• Adjective clauses: function as an adjective and
  describe a noun or pronoun from the main clause.
      I know the man who works in that office.
• Adverb clauses: function as an adverb and give
  additional information about the verb (how, when, where,
  and why)
      I know that man because he works with my father.

Note: We will see these in more detail in the skills.
Skills 1-5
   Simple Sentences: one subject + one verb
SKILL 1: BE SURE THE SENTENCE HAS A SUBJECT AND A VERB:

      Engineers are needed for work.
           S         V
      The boy will be going to the movies.
          S          V

SKILL 2: BE CAREFUL OF OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS:

      In the past a woman in politics wasn´t common.
               OP            S   OP    V


      For the fever he took aspirine tablets.
                OP   S   V
SKILL 3: BE CAREFUL OF APPOSITIVES
An appositive is a noun or noun phrase which describes
another noun or pronoun. It is normally set off by commas.

      Tom, a good mechanic, is fixing a car.
        S             APP         V

      A good mechanic, Tom is fixing a car.
            APP             S     V

       A good mechanic, Tom, is fixing a car.
                  S         APP       V
IT AND THERE
  Strategy
  Some sentences or clauses begin with it or there. Be aware of the
  constructions that follow these subjects. In the Structure section, parts
  of a sentence including it and there may be omitted.


A sentence or clause may begin with the words it or there.
1) It is used in three ways:
   – It is used as subject followed by the verb to be:
     It was in 1761 that she came to Boston. (It + to be + that)
   – It is used as subject when the information is related to an
     adjective:
     It was important to be free. (It + to be + adjective + infinitive)
   – It is used as a subject when it is used with a time phrase:
     It took her a few years to learn English. (It + take + time
     phrase + infinitive)
2) There shows that something or someone exists at a special time or
   place. In this use, the word there follows this construction:

   there + to be + subject
   There are many books about Phyllis Wheatley today.
   There was a big storm yesterday.

In these clauses the verb “to be” and the subject must agree on
    person.

“Expletive”:
• Function: noun
  1 a : a syllable, word, or phrase inserted to fill a vacancy (as in
  a sentence or a metrical line) without adding to the sense;
  especially : a word (as it in "make it clear which you prefer")
  that occupies the position of the subject or object of a verb in
  normal English word order and anticipates a subsequent word
  or phrase that supplies the needed meaningful content.
Source: Merriam Webster Online Dictionary: http://www.m-w.com/
SKILL 4: BE CAREFUL OF PRESENT PARTICIPLES (Adjectives):
Do not confuse them with present progressive:

        The boy is standing in the corner.
            S         V
        The boy standing in the corner looks suspicious.
             S    Adjective                 V


•   The present participle works as an adjective:

Tip: If it does not have a form of be, it is not a verb.
SKILL 5: BE CAREFUL OF PAST PARTICIPLES
Do not confuse them with the following:
1.   Simple past: She painted the picture.
2.   Present/Past Perfect: She has/had painted the picture.
3.   Passive Voice: The picture was painted by Karen.

•    The past participle works as an adjective:
       The picture painted looks wonderful.
              S     Adjective   V
Tip: If it does not have a form of be or have, it is not a verb.
Skills 6-8: Sentences with Multiple clauses:

1) Compound sentences: A compound sentence is a
sentence with two or more main or independent clauses that
can be connected with coordinating conjuctions: (acronym:
FANBOYS):

  for        and     nor        but     or   yet    so


• These sentences normally have a comma before the
  conjunction/connector.
Ana laughed, but she wanted to cry.
s       v    con. s    v

The TOEFL exam will be difficult, so we must study hard.
        s         v             con. s      v

The weather was great, and the sun was shining.
      s        v      con.    s        v
2) Complex Sentences: A complex sentence is one that has a
    main or independent clause and a subordinated clause.
• Adverb Clauses: These clauses give information about the verb
    in the independent clause:
 Time:                         Cause
 after                         because
 as                            since
 as long as                    now that
 before                        inasmuch as
 as soon as
 when
 while
 since
 until
 etc.
Condition   Contrast      Manner    Place
If          although      as        where
In case     even though   in that   wherever
provided    though
providing   while
unless      whereas
whether
Teresita went inside because it was raining.
  Subject verb              con.   Subj. verb

I am going to go to the movies as soon as I finish my TOEFL
Sub. verb                                   con.     Subj. verb
exercises.

Although there is a lot of information to learn for the TOEFL
Con.         Subj.   verb
exam, you can get the 600 points if you work hard.
        Subj. Verb                      con. Subj. verb
SKILLS 9-12: Noun and Adjective
               Clauses
•   Noun clauses: They are the second type of subordinated clauses.
    They work as nouns, so they can be subjects, objects of a verb, or
    objects of a preposition.

•   Noun clauses as any other clause have the normal order of
    Subject + Verb. Noun clauses you have used before:

    Indirect/embedded/polite questions:
    Where is the bank?
          Could you tell me where the bank is?
    Does he work here?
          Do you know if he works here?

•   Noun clauses answer the question “What…?” and can be substituted
    by “it”.
SKILL 9: USE NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTORS CORRECTLY

Noun connectors: what, when, where, why, how, whatever,
whenever, whether, if, that.

• As object of the verb: What do you know?
         I know what you did.
        S V    con.       S V

• As object of a preposition: What are you concerned about?
         I am concerned about when he will arrive.
       S V                  Prep.   C   S   V

• As subject of the sentence: What is not important?
        Con.   S      V
        When he will arrive is not important.
                Subject         V
SKILL 10: USE NOUN CLAUSE
         CONNECTOR/SUBJECTS CORRECTLY

Who, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever: Can be
connectors and subjects of the clause at the same time.

1. As object of the verb: What do you know?
                       I know what happened.
                     S V      C/S    V
2. As subject of the sentence: What was great?
                     What happened was great
                     C /S    V           V


3. As subject of all the sentence: What was wrong?
                        C S V
                       What you did was wrong
                        Subject     Verb
• Adjective clauses: These are the third type of dependent or
subordinate clause. They have the same function as an adjective:
describe a noun (person, place, thing).

        This is the book which I bought yesterday.
                          Describes the book.
        The man who is standing over there helped me.
                 Describes the man

• Adjective clauses, like all other clauses, need to have at least a
 subject and a verb.
• Adjective clauses go immediately after the noun they are
 describing, so they can appear in the middle or end of the
 sentence.
•   Adjective connectors: Who (people), whom (people/object and
    after prepositions), which (things), that (people or things, but
    cannot be used after prepositions or when the adjective clause
    is between commas), where (places), whose (possessive).

        I liked the book which you recommended.
        S V                  C       S     V
        The man who you recommended was hired yesterday.
           S       C    S        V                 V
•   Who (people), which (things) that (people or things): Can be
    connector and subject of the clause at the same time.

        She needs a secretary who can type fast
           S   V                     C/S       V
        A secretary who can type fast is invaluable
           S           C/S   V             V
Skills 13-14: Reduced Clauses
1) Adjective Clauses: Only adjective clauses where the connector
   works as subject of the clause can be reduced.

•   Clauses with a ‘be’ form: Omit the connector and the form of
    ‘be’:
          The girl (that is) sitting over there is my sister.
          The car (which was) bought by my father is a racing car.
          The house (that is) on sale is very old.

•   Clauses with no form of ‘be’: Omit the connector and change
    the main verb to ‘-ing’ form.
         I don’t understand the article (which appears) in today’s
         paper.
         I don’t understand the article appearing in today’s paper.
Adjective Clauses separated by commas

•   If the original adjective clause was separated by commas the
    reduced clause keeps the commas:

The homework, which was given by the math teacher, is due
  tomorrow.
The homework, given by the math teacher, is due tomorrow.

•   We can also change the position of the adjective clause and put it at
    the beginning of the sentence.

The president, (who is) now preparing to give a speech, is meeting with
  his advisors.
Now preparing to give a speech, the president is meeting with his
  advisors.
2) Adverb Clauses: Only adverb clauses that have the same
subject as the main clause can be reduced.
• Clauses with a form of ‘be’ : Keep the connector and omit the
   subject and the form of ‘be’ of the adverb clause.
Although he is rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the
   seminar.
Although rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the seminar.

•  Clauses with no form of ‘be’:
   Keep the connector, omit the subject and change the main verb
   to ‘-ing’ form.
Although he feels rather sick, the speaker will take part in the
   seminar.
Although feeling rather sick, the speaker will take part in the
   seminar.
Some adverb clauses can only be reduced if they are in passive
voice. For example, with adverb clauses with “once” can only be
reduced if the verb is in passive voice:

    Cannot be reduced:
        Once you arrive, you can start the exam.
    Can be reduced:
        Once the exercises are answered, they are checked by the
        teacher.
        Once answered, the exercises are checked by the teacher.
•   Adverb clauses of cause cannot be reduced:
        as, because, inasmuch as, now that, since
Skills 15-19: Subject and verb inverted

1) In questions the normal order of subject and verb/aux. is
   inverted:

  Yes/No questions:
  With verb “to be”           Are you a teacher?
                              V    S
  With other verbs:           Did you go to the beach?
                              Aux. S V
  Information questions:
  With verb “to be”           Where are you?
                              QW V S
  With other verbs:           What did you do?
                              QW A S V
2) Subject and Verb inverted after place expressions: When we
   have place words or expressions at the beginning of a clause
   we have to invert the normal order of subject + verb.

  With verb “to be”: Here is the book you lent me.
                           V S
      Around the corner is Sam’s house.
                         V S
  With other verbs:
      Nowhere have I seen such beautiful weather.
                 A S V

       In the closet are the clothes that you need.
                      V     S
•   The inversion of subject + verb with place expressions is only
    necessary when the expression is essential to complete the
    sentence.
    Necessary: In the forest are many exotic birds.
                              V               S
    Not necessary: In the forest, I walked for many hours.
                                  S       V
3) Invert subject + verb with negatives or almost negative words:
   The subject and verb are also inverted after certain negatives
   and related expressions: no, not, never, neither, nor, barely,
   hardly, only, rarely, scarcely, seldom

    With verb “to be”: Rarely were they so happy.
                                  V           S
    With other verbs:   Not only did he pass, he got a 100.
                                      A       S   V
4) Invert the subject with conditionals (Implied Conditionals). In
    certain conditional structures, the subject and the verb may
    also be inverted.
• When the conditional clause has: Had, should or were

  Should + S + V base form: (First Conditional)
      If I should finish early, I’ll help you.
      Should I finish early, I’ll help you.
  Were + S: (Second Conditional)
      If he were here, he would help.
      Were he here, he would help.
  Had + S + V base form: (Third Conditional)
      If you had studied more, you would’ve passed.
      Had you studied more, you would’ve passed.
5) The inversion with comparatives is optional and it can be used
   in formal writing.
• All of these forms are correct:

  My sister spends more hours in the office than John.
  My sister spends more hours in the office than John does.

INVERSION: COMPARATIVE + Aux/V + S
My sister spends more hours in the office than does John.

We were more prepared than the other performers.
We were more prepared than the other performers were.

INVERSION: COMPARATIVE + Aux/V + S
We were more prepared than were the other performers.
General Strategies for Written
           Expression
• First, look at the underlined word or
  groups of words to see if you can identify
  an incorrect form or structure.
• Then, read all the sentence to verify the
  correct form and structure of the four
  answer choices. Some underlined options
  are incorrect because of something in
  another part of the sentence.
• Never leave any answers blank.
Skills 20-23 Subject-Verb Agreement


1) Be careful with: prepositional phrases
•   If the subject is singular the verb is singular:
    The key to the doors IS in the drawer.
                   Ob.Prep.

•   If the Subject is plural the verb is plural:
    The keys to the doors ARE in the drawer.
                    Ob.Prep.

.
2) Make verbs agree after expressions of quantity:
   all/most/some/half of the.
   Singular count noun:        All of the book was interesting
   Plural count noun           All of the books were interesting
   Non-count nouns             All of the information was
                                        interesting.
3) When we have structures where we have to invert the normal
   order of subject + verb we have to be careful to make the verb
   agree with the subject. Remember this inversion is applied in
   questions, after expressions of place, after negative or almost
   negative words, in conditional clauses without “if”, and after
   comparisons. After these structures the order is:
   With verb “to be”: verb + subject
   With other verbs: aux. + subject + verb
Never is she late to class.
  Should Mary eat candy, she must brush her teeth.
  In the first drawer is the book you are looking for.
  How many times have your parents warned you to be careful?

4) After indefinite pronouns: everybody, nothing, somewhere,
   etc., the verb or auxiliary are used in singular form:

   Everybody was ready for the exam.
   Does someone know the answer?
Skills 24-26: Parallel Structure
Parallel Structure means to make the language as even
and balanced as possible.
Example:
(not balanced: wrong)     I like to sing and dancing.
(balanced, correct)       I like to sing and dance.
                          or
                          I like singing and dancing.
1) Parallel Structure with coordinate conjuctions: and, but, and or.
       They are not interested in what you say or what you do.
                                      clause          +   clause

       You can decide whether to go hiking or kayaking
                                         gerund   +   gerund

       I like to go home early, but my friends prefer to stay late.
            Independent clause   +   Independent clause

2) With paired Conjuctions
 both…and: I know both where you went and what you did.
 either…or: The report you are looking for could be either in the
             file or on the desk.
 neither…nor: The tickets are neither in my pocket nor in my
                 purse.
 Not only…. but also
    He is not only an excellent student but also a great athlete.
• Parallel structures with comparisons
more…..than           less….than                                        -er….. than
as….as                the same as                                       similar to

                    My school is farther than yours.
                    To be rich is better than not to be.
                    What is spoken is more easily
understood than what is     written.
                    Their car is as big as yours.
                    This book costs about the same as the
other book.
                    The work that I did is similiar to yours.
                    English is less difficult than Spanish.
Some helpful hints on how to revise sentences for parallel structure: *
1) Figure out what parts of the sentence are being compared.
2) Decide whether they are parallel, i.e. arranged or constructed in the same way.
3) If they are not, make them parallel by making the grammatical construction the same in
each part.

* Source: http://www.evergreen.edu/writingcenter/handouts/grammar/parallel.pdf
Skill 27-29: Form Comparatives and
            Superlatives Correctly
•  Comparative: We compare two persons or things.
1) Add –er to one syllable words: harder, darker, faster.
2) Double the consonant and add –er to one syllable words with
        v+c: bigger, hotter.
3) Change ‘y’ to ‘i’ and add –er to words with two syllables that
        end in ‘y’: happier, easier.
4) Use more/less before words with two or more syllables: more
        beautiful, more intelligent.
5) Add than after the comparative if you specify the second
   person or object you are comparing:
        Peter is taller than Joe.
•  Superlative: We compare more than two persons or things.
   (add ‘the’ before the adjective)
1) Add –est to one syllable words: the hardest, the darkest, the
   fastest.
2) Double the consonant and add –est to one syllable words with
   v+c: the biggest, the hottest.
3) Change ‘y’ to ‘i’ and add –est to words with two syllables that
   end in ‘y’: the happiest, the easiest.
4) Use the most/least before words with two or more syllables: the
   most beautiful, the most intelligent.
5) We can also use the words ‘in’, ‘of’ and ‘that after the
   superlative forms:
   You’re the most beautiful girl in the world.
   Your’re the most beautiful of all the girls in the group.
   You’re the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.
• Use Comparatives and Superlatives Correctly.
  Wrong: It is the better sports car that I´ve seen.
  Right: It is the best sports car that I’ve seen.
• Use the Irregular –er, -er Structure Correctly: Two parrallel
  comparatives introduced by ‘the’:
  The more you read, the more you learn.
  The harder you try, the more you’ll accomplish.
• Sometimes a verb is not necessary:
  The greater the experience, the higher the salary.
• The rules to form the comparative of adverbs are similar to
  adjectives except with two syllable adverbs that end in –y. The
  comparative is formed with more/less, the most/least: more
  easily.
• The comparative of nouns is formed only adding: more/less,
  the most/least: more work, the most work.
Skills 30-32: Problems with the Form of the
                      Verb

• Base form: No person, tense, or number.
  play      work         sing          come
• Present form: With tense, person and number.
  play(s)   work(s)      sing(s)       come(s)
• Present participle: Verb + -ing. Use in prog. tenses.
  playing working        singing       coming
• Past form: Used with the Simple Past
  played    worked       sang          came
• Past Participle: Used with Perfect tenses and
  Passive Voice.
  played    worked       sung          come
Always check what comes:
•   After any form of have: have, has, had, having we should use the past
    participle form of the verb:

    Peter has worked a lot this week.
    My parents have bought a new car.
    I had finished my homework by 10 p.m.
    Having finished my homework, I went out.
    You should have studied a little more.

•   After any form of be: am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being the verb
    can be in:
    Present participle: for progressive tenses:
    I am playing.           He is playing.            I was playing.
    We were playing.        I have been playing.      I had been playing.
Tip: The subject does the action.
2) Past participle: for the passive voice:
   I am checked by the doctor every year.
   The water is bought every day.
   The mail has been delivered on time.
   The movie will be filmed in Mexico.

Tip: The subject receives the action.


•   After modals or modal like expressions use the base form of
    the verb: can, could, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to,
    be able to, be supposed to, have to, had better.
    You can work with us.
    He should study a lot more.
    They must finish the project.
    I would help you, If I had time.
SKILL 33: KNOW WHEN TO USE THE PAST
               WITH THE PRESENT
•   If you see a sentence with one verb in the past and one verb in
    the present, the sentence is probably incorrect because it doesn´t
    make any sense:

    I tell him the truth when he asked me the question.

•   However, it is possible for a correct sentence to
    have both past and present together and be
    correct because the meaning is logical.

    I understand that you were angry
SKILL 34: USE HAVE AND HAD CORRECTLY

  TENSE       FORM        MEANING          USE                EXAMPLE


  Present   Have + Past   Past up to   Not with a      Sue has lived in L.A. for
  perfect   Participle    now          past tense **   10 years.



  Past      Had + Past    Before       Not with a      Sue had lived in L.A. for
  perfect   Participle    past up to   present         10 years when she
                          past         tense           moved to San Diego




 **Except when the time expression since is part of the sentence, see skill 35.
SKILL 35: USE THE CORRECT TENSE WITH
            TIME EXPRESSIONS
PAST PERFECT             SIMPLE PAST           PRESENT PERFECT
Adverb clause simple      in 1990, ago, last   since 1990, for… already,
past tense: when, before, year, yesterday,     lately, just, yet, recently, so
until, since, etc.                             far, many times, ever,
                                               never, still
SKILL 36: USE THE CORRECT TENSE WITH
            WILL AND WOULD
 VERB MEANING                      USE                  EXAMPLE
Will        After the         Do not use        I think that I will leave
            present           with past         tomorrow

Would       After the         Do not use He knew that she would
            past              with present come


NOTE: When would is used to make polite requests, it is used with the present tense:
“I would like to have a cup of coffee please”.
SKILL 37- 38: USE THE CORRECT FORM OF
                   THE PASSIVE
•   Active Voice: The subject does the action.
          The man bought the books.
           Subject      Verb   Object
•   Passive Voice: The subject receives the action:
         The books were bought by the man.
            Subject        verb         Agent



The passive voice is formed by:
   Be (takes the tense) + Verb in past participle
    Present:       am/is/are                bought
    Pres.Prog.     am/is/are being          bought
    Pres.Perf.     have/has been                     bought
    Past.          was/were                 bought
    Past Prog.     was/were being           bought
    Past Perf.     had been                 bought
    Future         will be                  bought
    Future Perf.   will have been           bought
SKILL 39:       USE THE CORRECT SINGULAR OR
                       PLURAL NOUN

   A singular noun is used where a plural noun is needed.
           On the table there were many dish.

   A plural noun is used where a singular noun is needed.
            The lab assistant finished every tests.



    KEY WORDS FOR SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS


For singular nouns                  Each every single one a


For plural nouns                    Both two many several various
Skill 40: Distinguish countable and uncountable
                         nouns

Some common mistakes:
       He has seen much* foreign films.
       He didn’t have many* fun at the movies.

It should be:
         He has seen many foreign films.
         He didn’t have much fun at the movies.

         Key words for countable and uncountable nouns

  For countable nouns       many number few fewer

 For uncountable nouns      much    amount        little   less
Skill 41: Recognize Irregular Plurals of Nouns

Many nouns in English have irregular plurals; the irregular forms that are the
most problematic are plural forms that do not end in S.



          Different Criteria was* used to evaluate the performers



In this example the plural criteria looks singular because it does not end in S.
However, criteria is a plural noun, so the singular verb was used is incorrect.
The verb should be in the plural form were used.
IRREGULAR PLURALS

Vowel Change       Man / Men            Foot / Feet      Goose / Geese
                   Woman / Women        Tooth / Teeth    Mouse / Mice
Add – EN           Child / Children      Ox / Oxen

Same as Singular   Deer / Deer        Salmon / Salmon   Trout / Trout
                   Fish / Fish        Sheep / Sheep
-IS  -ES          Analysis / Analyses Diagnosis / Diagnoses
                   Synthesis/Syntheses
                   Axis / Axes         Hypothesis / Hypotheses Thesis / Theses
                   Crisis / Crises     Parenthesis / Parentheses
Ends in –A         Bacterium / Bacteria      Datum / Data                Criterion /
                   Criteria
                   Curriculum / Curricula    Phenomenon / Phenomena
-US  -I           Alumnus / Alumni       Fungus / Fungi       Stimulus / Stimuli
                   Bacillus / Bacilli     Nucleus / Nuclei     Syllabus / Syllabi
                   Cactus / Cacti        Radius / Radii
Skill 42: Distinguish The Person From The Thing

Nouns in English can refer to persons or things; sometimes in the written
expression the person is used in place of the thing, or the thing is used in
place of the person.


 Ralph Nader is an authorization* in the field of consumer affairs
 There are many job oppotunities in accountant*


In the first example, autorization is incorrect because authorization is a
thing and Ralph Nader is a person; it should be authority.
In the second example, accountant is incorrect because accountant is a
person; it should be accounting.
Skill 43: DISTINGUISH SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS

A subject pronoun is used as the subject of the verb
An object pronoun can be used as the object of a verb or the
object of a preposition


                    SUBJECT       OBJECT
                    I             Me
                    You           You
                    He            Him
                    She           Her
                    It            It
                    We            Us
                    They          Them


               Sally gave the book to John.

               She gave it to him.
SKILL 44: DISTINGUISH POSSESIVE
        ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS

• Possessive adjectives and pronouns both show who or
  what ¨owns¨ a noun.
• Adjectives and possessive pronouns do not have the
  same function.
• A possessive adjective describes a noun, it must be
  accompanied by a noun
• A possessive pronoun takes the place of a noun, it can’t
  be accompanied by a noun
     They lent me their book.
     They lent me theirs.
The following chart outlines the possessives and their
uses:


  POSSESSIVE               POSSESSIVE
  ADJECTIVES               PRONOUNS

  My                       Mine
  Your                     Yours
  His                      His
  Her                      Hers
  Its                      -
  Our                      Ours
  Their                    Theirs

  Must be accompanied by   Cannot be accompanied
  noun                     by a noun
Skill 45: CHECK PRONOUN REFERENCE FOR
                AGREEMENT
After we check that the subject and object pronouns and the
possessives are used correctly, we should also check each of
these pronouns and possessives for agreement.

     The boy will cause trouble if you let him.
     Everyone must give his/her* name.


PRONOUN AGREEMENT
1. Be sure that every pronoun and possessive agrees with the
   noun it refers to.
2. You generally check back in the sentence for agreement

*In informal speaking we can use their/them
SKILL 46: USE BASIC ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
                  CORRECTLY
Adjectives are used in place of adverbs, or adverbs are used in place of
adjectives. Adjectives and adverbs have very different uses. Adjectives
have only one job: they describe nouns or pronouns. Adverbs describe
verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.


            She is a beautiful woman.                     She is beautiful.
                            ADJ.          NOUN            PRO.      ADJ.




She sings beautifully.
     VERB            ADV.




She is a beautifully dressed woman.
                    ADV.           ADJ.     NOUN




She is a truly beautifully dressed woman.
             ADV.           ADV.          ADJ.     NOUN
Skill 47: Use Adjectives after Linking Verbs
•  Generally an adverb rather than an adjective will come directly
after a verb because the adverb is describing the verb.
         She spoke nicely.
             VERB    ADV.

This adverb (nicely) describes the verb spoke.

•   You must be careful if the verb is a linking verb. A linking verb
is followed by an adjective rather than an adverb. A linking verb is
a non-action (describes a state) verb that needs a complement.

Examples:                   She looks nice.
                            SUB.      ADJ.
LINKING VERBS:      appear       feel     seem    be   look   smell
                    become       prove    taste
SKILL 48. POSITION ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS CORRECTLY
                THE POSITION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
                    A one-word adjective comes before the noun it describes, it does not come
 ADJECTIVES         directly after.

 ADVERBS            An adverb can appear in many positions. It cannot be used between a verb
                    and its object.

Adjectives and adverbs can appear in incorrect positions in the Written
Expression Section.

The two common errors are:
- The position of adjectives with the nouns they describe.
- The position of adverbs with objects.

In English it is correct to place a one-word adjective in front of the noun it
describes.
                     The information important is on the first page.

Here the adjective “important” should come before the noun information,
this is because important describes information.

                   The important information is on the first page.
• You should be aware of the position of adverbs with objects of verbs.
when a verb has an object, an adverb describing the verb should not come
between the verb and its object.


                He has taken recently an English course.
                        Verb Adv. Object

• There are many possible corrections for this sentence.

                Recently he has taken an English course
                He has recently taken an English course
                He has taken an English course recently.
SKILL 49: Do not confuse –ly Adjectives with
           Adverbs ending in –ly


                      -LY ADJECTIVES
  costly     likely       daily     quarterly   northerly

  early      lively       hourly    weekly      easterly

  friendly   lonely       monthly   yearly      southerly

  kindly     manly        nightly   lovely      westerly
SKILL 50: USE PREDICATE ADJECTIVES
             AFTER LINKING VERBS
      The snake on the rock was alive. CORRECT

The alive* snake was lying on the rock. INCORRECT

•   In the first example, the predicate adjective alive is used
    correctly after the liking verb was to describe the subject
    snake. In the second example, the predicate adjective alive
    is used incorrectly in front of the noun snake. In this
    position, the adjective live should be used.
SKILL 50: USE PREDICATE ADJECTIVES
CORRECTLY

     Predicate adjectives       Forms used in front of noun

            alike                     like, similar
            alive                      live, living
           alone                           lone
           afraid                      frightened
           asleep                       sleeping

 A predicate adjective appears after a linking verb such
 as be. It cannot appear directly in front of the noun that
 it describes.
SKILL 51: USE –ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES
              CORRECTLY

                      The woman cleans the car.
                                       VERB


              The cleaning woman worked on the car.
                    ADJECTIVE


       The woman put the cleaned car back in the garage.
                                ADJECTIVE

• In the first example, cleans is the verb of the sentence. In the second
example, cleaning is a verbal adjective describing woman. In the third
example, cleaned is a verbal adjective describing car.
The cleaning* car… is not correct because a car cannot do the action
of cleaning. (active)
The cleaned* woman… is not correct because a woman cannot
receive the action of the verb clean. (passive)
SKILL 51: USE –ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES
                CORRECTLY


           -ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES
TYPE   MEANING          USE                   EXAMPLE

                 It does the           … the happily playing
-ING    Active   action of the            children….
                 verb.                 (The children play.)
                 It receives the       … the frequently played
-ED    Passive   action of the verb.      record…
                                       (Someone plays the
                                          record.)
Skills: 52-54: PROBLEMS WITH ARTICLES:

 Articles    Countable      Contable      Uncontable
              Singular    Plural Nouns      Nouns
               Nouns

Indefinite    a dollar     ---- dollars   ----money
(General)    an apple      ---- apples     ----juice


 Definite    the dollar    the dollars    the money
(Specific)   the apple     the apples      the juice
SKILL 52: Use Articles with Singular
                      Nouns

A singular noun must have an article (a/an, the) or some other
determiner such as my or each. A plural noun or an uncountable
noun may or may not have an article.

I have money. (Uncountable--- no article needed)
I have books. (Countable plural--- no article needed)
I have a book. (Countable singular--- article needed)
SKILL 53: Distinguish A/An


  A        A is used in front of a singular noun with a consonant
                                    sound.
 AN            AN is used in front of a singular noun with a vowel
                                      sound.
Be careful of words beginning with letters such as u, o, e, x or h.
   They may begin with either a vowel or a consonant sound.



A university     A hand      A one- way       A         A xerox
                                street    euphemism     machine
An unhappy       An hour      An omen      An event     An x-ray
   man                                                  machine
Skill 54: Make Articles agree with Nouns

•   The definite article “the” is for both singular and plural nouns
•   The indefinite article “a/an” is used only with singular nouns.
•   One very common agreement error is to use the singular
    indefinite “a/an” with a plural noun.

    He saw a new movies. (incorrect)
    He saw a new movie. (singular)
    He saw new movies (plural)
Skill 55: Distinguish Specific and General Ideas


•   With countable singular nouns, it is possible to use either the
    definite or the indefinite article. BUT THEY HAVE DIFFERENT
    MEANINGS.

                       ¨A or An (versus) THE¨

•  A or An:
1. Use it when there are many, and you don´t know which one it
   is.
2. Use it when there are many, and you don´t care which one it is.
        Tom will bring a book tomorow. (any book)
•    THE:
1.   Use it when it is the only one.
2.   Use it when there are many, and you and your listener
     know which one it is.

     Tom will bring the book tomorow. (a specific book.)
Skills 56-57: Problems with Prepositions

                              Prepositions


           Literal way                       Idiomatic way

                                              It’s very far
        Means exactly
                                             from the real
        what you expect
                                                meaning


                               Example


The boy ran up the mountain.          v/s         I call up my friend.



              Literal     /   Idiomatic meaning
Prepositions
     Prepositions are not only used to show time, place, and
     agent, but are also used in combination with verbs,
     adjectives, nouns, and in many common set expressions. We
     cannot list all prepositions, but some important groups are:

1.   Verb + Preposition
     depend on lead to
2.   Adjective/Participle + Preposition
     surprised at famous for
3.   Noun + Preposition
     example of possibility of
4.   Other Combinations with Prepositions
     as a result of in addition to
5.   Prepositions of Time and Place
     on May 16 in Washington
6.   Prepositions in Common Expressions
     at present in general
VERB + PREPOSITION
account for contribute to   insist on         plan on
believe in  depend on       lead to           rely on
belong to   detach from     obtain from       result in
confined to fight for       overcome by       withdraw from

ADJECTIVE/PARTICIPLE + PREPOSITION
  accustomed to different from necessary for       responsible for
  afraid of     expert at      opossed to          successful in
  based on      free from      possible for        surprised at
  compared to   famous for     related to          typical of

NOUN + PREPOSITION
  cause of  equivalent of    influence on       result of
  cost of   evidence of      need for           use of
  danger of example of       possibility of     solution to
  effect on increase in      reason for         supply of
OTHER COMBINATIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS
    according to        in the process of
    as a consequence of in view of
    as a result of      on account of
    because of          on behalf of
    by means of         on the basis of
    in addition to      prior to
    in spite of         with the exception of
    in terms of         with the purpose of
PREPOSITIONS IN COMMON EXPRESSIONS
at times                by land/sea/air
at present              by far
at first/last           by chance
at the moment           by accident
                        by day/night
in common               on fire
in general              on the other hand
in existence            on the whole
in the future/past      on purpose
in theory               on land
PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE
• Prepositions of Time
     at               time of day (at 8 a.m.)
                      noon, night midnight
     in               parts of the day (in the
                      morning/evening/afternoon)
                      month (in July)
                      season (in the fall)
                      year (in 1980)
                      decade (in the 1980s)
                      century (in the nineteenth century)
     on               days of the week (on Monday)
                      dates (on March 20)
     for/since        duration of time (for three days)
                      point in time (since March 20)
     from . . . to    from beginning time . . . to ending (from 8 a.m.
                      to 5 p.m.)
PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE

• Prepositions of Place
    at             address (at 200 Main Street)
    on             street/road/avenue (on Kings Road)
    in             building (in the drugstore)
                   city (in Los Angeles)
                   state (in California)
                   country (in Japan)
                   continent (in Africa)
    from . . . to  from beginning point . . . to ending
                   point (from Alaska to California)
Skill 56-57: Problems with Prepositions

•   Sometimes an incorrect preposition is given in a sentence in
    the Written Expression section of the TOEFL test.

    The game was called on because of the rain.
         It must be called off – (canceled)
    I knew I could count in you to do a good job.
         It must be count on someone

•   Sometimes a necessary preposition has been omitted from a
    sentence in the Written Expression section of the TOEFL test.

    Can you wait me after the game.
         It should be: wait for me.
    I plan attending the meeting.
         It should be: plan on attending.
Skill 58: Distinguish Make and Do

   •Make and Do can be confused in English because their
meanings are so similar.
   •Make often has the idea of creating or constructing.
The following expressions show some of the possible uses
of make:

   She likes to make her own clothes.
   Would you like to make a cake for dessert?
   If you make a mistake, you should correct it.
   He was unable to make a response to the threat.
• Do often has the idea of completing or performing. The
  following expressions show some of the possible uses of
  do:

  This morning she did all the dishes.
  The students are doing assignments.
  The janitors did the work they were assigned.
  You can do your laundry at the laundromat.

Many uses of make and do are idiomatic and therefore
difficult to classify.

http://www.epcc.edu/ftp/Homes/tracyvm/dovsmake.html
Skill 59: Distinguish like, alike, unlike, and
                       dislike
•   Like, alike, unlike and dislike sometimes are confused because
    they look so similar but they have many different uses.

1) Like and alike
       John and Tom are alike.
       John and Tom worked in a like manner.

    As you see like and alike are adjectives that have similar
      meaning.

    Alike is a predicate adjective, so we can only use it after a
      linking verb.
    Like is used immediately before a noun so it is an adjective
      form.
2) Like and unlike
       Jonh is like Tom.
       John is unlike Tom.
    Here both words have opposite meanings, they are working as
       prepositions so they must be followed by objects.
    The prepositions like and unlike can also be used at the
       beginning of a sentence.
3) Like and dislike
       John and Tom like the course.
       John and Tom dislike the course.
    Here both words are written as verbs, so they are used with
       subjects.
SKILL 60: DINTINGUISH OTHER, ANOTHER,
                AND OTHERS
To decide how to use other, another or others, we must
consider three things:

1.- If it is singular or plural.

2.- If it is definite (the) or indefinite (a).

3.- If it is an adjective ( it appears with a noun) or if it is a
pronoun (it appears by itself).
SINGULAR              PLURAL
             I have another      I have other
             book.               books.
INDEFINITE
             I have another.     I have others.


             I have the other    I have the other
             book.               books.
DEFINITE
             I have the other.   I have the others.
Bibliography:
Broukal, Milada. In-A-Flash: Grammar for the TOEFL Test. New
   Jersey: Thomson Learning, Inc. 2001.
Phillips, Deborah. Longman Preparation Course for the TEFL Test.
   The Paper Test. New York: Pearson Education, 2003.

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Skills 1 60

  • 1. TOEFL: Structure and Written Expression
  • 2. General Strategies • Be familiar with the directions. • Begin with questions 1-15 (Structure). Questions 1-5 are easier and 11-15 are harder. • Continue with questions 16-40 (Written Expression). Questions 16-20 are easier and 36- 40 are harder. • Do not take too much time with each item. If you have time left you can go back and check 11-15 and 36-40. • Do not leave any blank answers on the answer sheet.
  • 3. Strategies for Structure Questions • First, study the sentence. • Then study each answer choice based on how well it completes the sentence. • Do not try to eliminate incorrect options by looking only at the answers. • Be aware that in this section most of the items will require you to identify the subject or the verb (or both) in the correct order of subject + verb (except on items with inverted structure). • Do not spend too much time on this section. Leave enough time for the Written Expression Section.
  • 4. Characteristics of a Sentence • A sentence can be formed by one or more clauses. • Clauses can be independent and dependent/subordinate clauses. All sentences must have subject and verb. • Sentences can be: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. • A simple sentence is formed by only one independent clause. I went to the movies yesterday afternoon. Independent clause
  • 5. A compound sentence is formed by two or more independent clauses connected by coordinate conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so: FANBOYS). I went to the movies last night, and I had a great time. Independent clause conjunction + Ind. clause • A complex sentence is formed by one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. I went to the movies after I had finished my homework. Independent Clause connector + Dependent Clause
  • 6. A compound-complex sentence is formed by more than one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. I went to the movies, and I had a great time because the movie Indep. Clause conj. + Indep. Clause + connector + Dep. Cl. was terrific.
  • 7. Characteristics of a Clause • Every clause must have a subject and a verb. A complement is optional. • There are two types of clauses: independent and dependent (or subordinated). • Independent clauses have a complete idea and can stand alone in a sentence. • Dependent clauses complement the independent clause, but do not have a complete idea and cannot stand alone in a sentence.
  • 8. • There are three types of dependent clauses: • Noun clauses: function as a noun, so they can be subjects, objects of a verb, or objects of a preposition. I understand how you feel. • Adjective clauses: function as an adjective and describe a noun or pronoun from the main clause. I know the man who works in that office. • Adverb clauses: function as an adverb and give additional information about the verb (how, when, where, and why) I know that man because he works with my father. Note: We will see these in more detail in the skills.
  • 9. Skills 1-5 Simple Sentences: one subject + one verb SKILL 1: BE SURE THE SENTENCE HAS A SUBJECT AND A VERB: Engineers are needed for work. S V The boy will be going to the movies. S V SKILL 2: BE CAREFUL OF OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS: In the past a woman in politics wasn´t common. OP S OP V For the fever he took aspirine tablets. OP S V
  • 10. SKILL 3: BE CAREFUL OF APPOSITIVES An appositive is a noun or noun phrase which describes another noun or pronoun. It is normally set off by commas. Tom, a good mechanic, is fixing a car. S APP V A good mechanic, Tom is fixing a car. APP S V A good mechanic, Tom, is fixing a car. S APP V
  • 11. IT AND THERE Strategy Some sentences or clauses begin with it or there. Be aware of the constructions that follow these subjects. In the Structure section, parts of a sentence including it and there may be omitted. A sentence or clause may begin with the words it or there. 1) It is used in three ways: – It is used as subject followed by the verb to be: It was in 1761 that she came to Boston. (It + to be + that) – It is used as subject when the information is related to an adjective: It was important to be free. (It + to be + adjective + infinitive) – It is used as a subject when it is used with a time phrase: It took her a few years to learn English. (It + take + time phrase + infinitive)
  • 12. 2) There shows that something or someone exists at a special time or place. In this use, the word there follows this construction: there + to be + subject There are many books about Phyllis Wheatley today. There was a big storm yesterday. In these clauses the verb “to be” and the subject must agree on person. “Expletive”: • Function: noun 1 a : a syllable, word, or phrase inserted to fill a vacancy (as in a sentence or a metrical line) without adding to the sense; especially : a word (as it in "make it clear which you prefer") that occupies the position of the subject or object of a verb in normal English word order and anticipates a subsequent word or phrase that supplies the needed meaningful content. Source: Merriam Webster Online Dictionary: http://www.m-w.com/
  • 13. SKILL 4: BE CAREFUL OF PRESENT PARTICIPLES (Adjectives): Do not confuse them with present progressive: The boy is standing in the corner. S V The boy standing in the corner looks suspicious. S Adjective V • The present participle works as an adjective: Tip: If it does not have a form of be, it is not a verb.
  • 14. SKILL 5: BE CAREFUL OF PAST PARTICIPLES Do not confuse them with the following: 1. Simple past: She painted the picture. 2. Present/Past Perfect: She has/had painted the picture. 3. Passive Voice: The picture was painted by Karen. • The past participle works as an adjective: The picture painted looks wonderful. S Adjective V Tip: If it does not have a form of be or have, it is not a verb.
  • 15. Skills 6-8: Sentences with Multiple clauses: 1) Compound sentences: A compound sentence is a sentence with two or more main or independent clauses that can be connected with coordinating conjuctions: (acronym: FANBOYS): for and nor but or yet so • These sentences normally have a comma before the conjunction/connector.
  • 16. Ana laughed, but she wanted to cry. s v con. s v The TOEFL exam will be difficult, so we must study hard. s v con. s v The weather was great, and the sun was shining. s v con. s v
  • 17. 2) Complex Sentences: A complex sentence is one that has a main or independent clause and a subordinated clause. • Adverb Clauses: These clauses give information about the verb in the independent clause: Time: Cause after because as since as long as now that before inasmuch as as soon as when while since until etc.
  • 18. Condition Contrast Manner Place If although as where In case even though in that wherever provided though providing while unless whereas whether
  • 19. Teresita went inside because it was raining. Subject verb con. Subj. verb I am going to go to the movies as soon as I finish my TOEFL Sub. verb con. Subj. verb exercises. Although there is a lot of information to learn for the TOEFL Con. Subj. verb exam, you can get the 600 points if you work hard. Subj. Verb con. Subj. verb
  • 20. SKILLS 9-12: Noun and Adjective Clauses • Noun clauses: They are the second type of subordinated clauses. They work as nouns, so they can be subjects, objects of a verb, or objects of a preposition. • Noun clauses as any other clause have the normal order of Subject + Verb. Noun clauses you have used before: Indirect/embedded/polite questions: Where is the bank? Could you tell me where the bank is? Does he work here? Do you know if he works here? • Noun clauses answer the question “What…?” and can be substituted by “it”.
  • 21. SKILL 9: USE NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTORS CORRECTLY Noun connectors: what, when, where, why, how, whatever, whenever, whether, if, that. • As object of the verb: What do you know? I know what you did. S V con. S V • As object of a preposition: What are you concerned about? I am concerned about when he will arrive. S V Prep. C S V • As subject of the sentence: What is not important? Con. S V When he will arrive is not important. Subject V
  • 22. SKILL 10: USE NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTOR/SUBJECTS CORRECTLY Who, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever: Can be connectors and subjects of the clause at the same time. 1. As object of the verb: What do you know? I know what happened. S V C/S V 2. As subject of the sentence: What was great? What happened was great C /S V V 3. As subject of all the sentence: What was wrong? C S V What you did was wrong Subject Verb
  • 23. • Adjective clauses: These are the third type of dependent or subordinate clause. They have the same function as an adjective: describe a noun (person, place, thing). This is the book which I bought yesterday. Describes the book. The man who is standing over there helped me. Describes the man • Adjective clauses, like all other clauses, need to have at least a subject and a verb. • Adjective clauses go immediately after the noun they are describing, so they can appear in the middle or end of the sentence.
  • 24. Adjective connectors: Who (people), whom (people/object and after prepositions), which (things), that (people or things, but cannot be used after prepositions or when the adjective clause is between commas), where (places), whose (possessive). I liked the book which you recommended. S V C S V The man who you recommended was hired yesterday. S C S V V • Who (people), which (things) that (people or things): Can be connector and subject of the clause at the same time. She needs a secretary who can type fast S V C/S V A secretary who can type fast is invaluable S C/S V V
  • 25. Skills 13-14: Reduced Clauses 1) Adjective Clauses: Only adjective clauses where the connector works as subject of the clause can be reduced. • Clauses with a ‘be’ form: Omit the connector and the form of ‘be’: The girl (that is) sitting over there is my sister. The car (which was) bought by my father is a racing car. The house (that is) on sale is very old. • Clauses with no form of ‘be’: Omit the connector and change the main verb to ‘-ing’ form. I don’t understand the article (which appears) in today’s paper. I don’t understand the article appearing in today’s paper.
  • 26. Adjective Clauses separated by commas • If the original adjective clause was separated by commas the reduced clause keeps the commas: The homework, which was given by the math teacher, is due tomorrow. The homework, given by the math teacher, is due tomorrow. • We can also change the position of the adjective clause and put it at the beginning of the sentence. The president, (who is) now preparing to give a speech, is meeting with his advisors. Now preparing to give a speech, the president is meeting with his advisors.
  • 27. 2) Adverb Clauses: Only adverb clauses that have the same subject as the main clause can be reduced. • Clauses with a form of ‘be’ : Keep the connector and omit the subject and the form of ‘be’ of the adverb clause. Although he is rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the seminar. Although rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the seminar. • Clauses with no form of ‘be’: Keep the connector, omit the subject and change the main verb to ‘-ing’ form. Although he feels rather sick, the speaker will take part in the seminar. Although feeling rather sick, the speaker will take part in the seminar.
  • 28. Some adverb clauses can only be reduced if they are in passive voice. For example, with adverb clauses with “once” can only be reduced if the verb is in passive voice: Cannot be reduced: Once you arrive, you can start the exam. Can be reduced: Once the exercises are answered, they are checked by the teacher. Once answered, the exercises are checked by the teacher. • Adverb clauses of cause cannot be reduced: as, because, inasmuch as, now that, since
  • 29. Skills 15-19: Subject and verb inverted 1) In questions the normal order of subject and verb/aux. is inverted: Yes/No questions: With verb “to be” Are you a teacher? V S With other verbs: Did you go to the beach? Aux. S V Information questions: With verb “to be” Where are you? QW V S With other verbs: What did you do? QW A S V
  • 30. 2) Subject and Verb inverted after place expressions: When we have place words or expressions at the beginning of a clause we have to invert the normal order of subject + verb. With verb “to be”: Here is the book you lent me. V S Around the corner is Sam’s house. V S With other verbs: Nowhere have I seen such beautiful weather. A S V In the closet are the clothes that you need. V S
  • 31. The inversion of subject + verb with place expressions is only necessary when the expression is essential to complete the sentence. Necessary: In the forest are many exotic birds. V S Not necessary: In the forest, I walked for many hours. S V 3) Invert subject + verb with negatives or almost negative words: The subject and verb are also inverted after certain negatives and related expressions: no, not, never, neither, nor, barely, hardly, only, rarely, scarcely, seldom With verb “to be”: Rarely were they so happy. V S With other verbs: Not only did he pass, he got a 100. A S V
  • 32. 4) Invert the subject with conditionals (Implied Conditionals). In certain conditional structures, the subject and the verb may also be inverted. • When the conditional clause has: Had, should or were Should + S + V base form: (First Conditional) If I should finish early, I’ll help you. Should I finish early, I’ll help you. Were + S: (Second Conditional) If he were here, he would help. Were he here, he would help. Had + S + V base form: (Third Conditional) If you had studied more, you would’ve passed. Had you studied more, you would’ve passed.
  • 33. 5) The inversion with comparatives is optional and it can be used in formal writing. • All of these forms are correct: My sister spends more hours in the office than John. My sister spends more hours in the office than John does. INVERSION: COMPARATIVE + Aux/V + S My sister spends more hours in the office than does John. We were more prepared than the other performers. We were more prepared than the other performers were. INVERSION: COMPARATIVE + Aux/V + S We were more prepared than were the other performers.
  • 34. General Strategies for Written Expression • First, look at the underlined word or groups of words to see if you can identify an incorrect form or structure. • Then, read all the sentence to verify the correct form and structure of the four answer choices. Some underlined options are incorrect because of something in another part of the sentence. • Never leave any answers blank.
  • 35. Skills 20-23 Subject-Verb Agreement 1) Be careful with: prepositional phrases • If the subject is singular the verb is singular: The key to the doors IS in the drawer. Ob.Prep. • If the Subject is plural the verb is plural: The keys to the doors ARE in the drawer. Ob.Prep. .
  • 36. 2) Make verbs agree after expressions of quantity: all/most/some/half of the. Singular count noun: All of the book was interesting Plural count noun All of the books were interesting Non-count nouns All of the information was interesting. 3) When we have structures where we have to invert the normal order of subject + verb we have to be careful to make the verb agree with the subject. Remember this inversion is applied in questions, after expressions of place, after negative or almost negative words, in conditional clauses without “if”, and after comparisons. After these structures the order is: With verb “to be”: verb + subject With other verbs: aux. + subject + verb
  • 37. Never is she late to class. Should Mary eat candy, she must brush her teeth. In the first drawer is the book you are looking for. How many times have your parents warned you to be careful? 4) After indefinite pronouns: everybody, nothing, somewhere, etc., the verb or auxiliary are used in singular form: Everybody was ready for the exam. Does someone know the answer?
  • 38. Skills 24-26: Parallel Structure Parallel Structure means to make the language as even and balanced as possible. Example: (not balanced: wrong) I like to sing and dancing. (balanced, correct) I like to sing and dance. or I like singing and dancing.
  • 39. 1) Parallel Structure with coordinate conjuctions: and, but, and or. They are not interested in what you say or what you do. clause + clause You can decide whether to go hiking or kayaking gerund + gerund I like to go home early, but my friends prefer to stay late. Independent clause + Independent clause 2) With paired Conjuctions both…and: I know both where you went and what you did. either…or: The report you are looking for could be either in the file or on the desk. neither…nor: The tickets are neither in my pocket nor in my purse. Not only…. but also He is not only an excellent student but also a great athlete.
  • 40. • Parallel structures with comparisons more…..than less….than -er….. than as….as the same as similar to My school is farther than yours. To be rich is better than not to be. What is spoken is more easily understood than what is written. Their car is as big as yours. This book costs about the same as the other book. The work that I did is similiar to yours. English is less difficult than Spanish. Some helpful hints on how to revise sentences for parallel structure: * 1) Figure out what parts of the sentence are being compared. 2) Decide whether they are parallel, i.e. arranged or constructed in the same way. 3) If they are not, make them parallel by making the grammatical construction the same in each part. * Source: http://www.evergreen.edu/writingcenter/handouts/grammar/parallel.pdf
  • 41. Skill 27-29: Form Comparatives and Superlatives Correctly • Comparative: We compare two persons or things. 1) Add –er to one syllable words: harder, darker, faster. 2) Double the consonant and add –er to one syllable words with v+c: bigger, hotter. 3) Change ‘y’ to ‘i’ and add –er to words with two syllables that end in ‘y’: happier, easier. 4) Use more/less before words with two or more syllables: more beautiful, more intelligent. 5) Add than after the comparative if you specify the second person or object you are comparing: Peter is taller than Joe.
  • 42. • Superlative: We compare more than two persons or things. (add ‘the’ before the adjective) 1) Add –est to one syllable words: the hardest, the darkest, the fastest. 2) Double the consonant and add –est to one syllable words with v+c: the biggest, the hottest. 3) Change ‘y’ to ‘i’ and add –est to words with two syllables that end in ‘y’: the happiest, the easiest. 4) Use the most/least before words with two or more syllables: the most beautiful, the most intelligent. 5) We can also use the words ‘in’, ‘of’ and ‘that after the superlative forms: You’re the most beautiful girl in the world. Your’re the most beautiful of all the girls in the group. You’re the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.
  • 43. • Use Comparatives and Superlatives Correctly. Wrong: It is the better sports car that I´ve seen. Right: It is the best sports car that I’ve seen. • Use the Irregular –er, -er Structure Correctly: Two parrallel comparatives introduced by ‘the’: The more you read, the more you learn. The harder you try, the more you’ll accomplish. • Sometimes a verb is not necessary: The greater the experience, the higher the salary. • The rules to form the comparative of adverbs are similar to adjectives except with two syllable adverbs that end in –y. The comparative is formed with more/less, the most/least: more easily. • The comparative of nouns is formed only adding: more/less, the most/least: more work, the most work.
  • 44. Skills 30-32: Problems with the Form of the Verb • Base form: No person, tense, or number. play work sing come • Present form: With tense, person and number. play(s) work(s) sing(s) come(s) • Present participle: Verb + -ing. Use in prog. tenses. playing working singing coming • Past form: Used with the Simple Past played worked sang came • Past Participle: Used with Perfect tenses and Passive Voice. played worked sung come
  • 45. Always check what comes: • After any form of have: have, has, had, having we should use the past participle form of the verb: Peter has worked a lot this week. My parents have bought a new car. I had finished my homework by 10 p.m. Having finished my homework, I went out. You should have studied a little more. • After any form of be: am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being the verb can be in: Present participle: for progressive tenses: I am playing. He is playing. I was playing. We were playing. I have been playing. I had been playing. Tip: The subject does the action.
  • 46. 2) Past participle: for the passive voice: I am checked by the doctor every year. The water is bought every day. The mail has been delivered on time. The movie will be filmed in Mexico. Tip: The subject receives the action. • After modals or modal like expressions use the base form of the verb: can, could, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to, be able to, be supposed to, have to, had better. You can work with us. He should study a lot more. They must finish the project. I would help you, If I had time.
  • 47. SKILL 33: KNOW WHEN TO USE THE PAST WITH THE PRESENT • If you see a sentence with one verb in the past and one verb in the present, the sentence is probably incorrect because it doesn´t make any sense: I tell him the truth when he asked me the question. • However, it is possible for a correct sentence to have both past and present together and be correct because the meaning is logical. I understand that you were angry
  • 48. SKILL 34: USE HAVE AND HAD CORRECTLY TENSE FORM MEANING USE EXAMPLE Present Have + Past Past up to Not with a Sue has lived in L.A. for perfect Participle now past tense ** 10 years. Past Had + Past Before Not with a Sue had lived in L.A. for perfect Participle past up to present 10 years when she past tense moved to San Diego **Except when the time expression since is part of the sentence, see skill 35.
  • 49. SKILL 35: USE THE CORRECT TENSE WITH TIME EXPRESSIONS PAST PERFECT SIMPLE PAST PRESENT PERFECT Adverb clause simple in 1990, ago, last since 1990, for… already, past tense: when, before, year, yesterday, lately, just, yet, recently, so until, since, etc. far, many times, ever, never, still
  • 50. SKILL 36: USE THE CORRECT TENSE WITH WILL AND WOULD VERB MEANING USE EXAMPLE Will After the Do not use I think that I will leave present with past tomorrow Would After the Do not use He knew that she would past with present come NOTE: When would is used to make polite requests, it is used with the present tense: “I would like to have a cup of coffee please”.
  • 51. SKILL 37- 38: USE THE CORRECT FORM OF THE PASSIVE • Active Voice: The subject does the action. The man bought the books. Subject Verb Object • Passive Voice: The subject receives the action: The books were bought by the man. Subject verb Agent The passive voice is formed by: Be (takes the tense) + Verb in past participle Present: am/is/are bought Pres.Prog. am/is/are being bought Pres.Perf. have/has been bought Past. was/were bought Past Prog. was/were being bought Past Perf. had been bought Future will be bought Future Perf. will have been bought
  • 52. SKILL 39: USE THE CORRECT SINGULAR OR PLURAL NOUN A singular noun is used where a plural noun is needed. On the table there were many dish. A plural noun is used where a singular noun is needed. The lab assistant finished every tests. KEY WORDS FOR SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS For singular nouns Each every single one a For plural nouns Both two many several various
  • 53. Skill 40: Distinguish countable and uncountable nouns Some common mistakes: He has seen much* foreign films. He didn’t have many* fun at the movies. It should be: He has seen many foreign films. He didn’t have much fun at the movies. Key words for countable and uncountable nouns For countable nouns many number few fewer For uncountable nouns much amount little less
  • 54. Skill 41: Recognize Irregular Plurals of Nouns Many nouns in English have irregular plurals; the irregular forms that are the most problematic are plural forms that do not end in S. Different Criteria was* used to evaluate the performers In this example the plural criteria looks singular because it does not end in S. However, criteria is a plural noun, so the singular verb was used is incorrect. The verb should be in the plural form were used.
  • 55. IRREGULAR PLURALS Vowel Change Man / Men Foot / Feet Goose / Geese Woman / Women Tooth / Teeth Mouse / Mice Add – EN Child / Children Ox / Oxen Same as Singular Deer / Deer Salmon / Salmon Trout / Trout Fish / Fish Sheep / Sheep -IS  -ES Analysis / Analyses Diagnosis / Diagnoses Synthesis/Syntheses Axis / Axes Hypothesis / Hypotheses Thesis / Theses Crisis / Crises Parenthesis / Parentheses Ends in –A Bacterium / Bacteria Datum / Data Criterion / Criteria Curriculum / Curricula Phenomenon / Phenomena -US  -I Alumnus / Alumni Fungus / Fungi Stimulus / Stimuli Bacillus / Bacilli Nucleus / Nuclei Syllabus / Syllabi Cactus / Cacti Radius / Radii
  • 56. Skill 42: Distinguish The Person From The Thing Nouns in English can refer to persons or things; sometimes in the written expression the person is used in place of the thing, or the thing is used in place of the person. Ralph Nader is an authorization* in the field of consumer affairs There are many job oppotunities in accountant* In the first example, autorization is incorrect because authorization is a thing and Ralph Nader is a person; it should be authority. In the second example, accountant is incorrect because accountant is a person; it should be accounting.
  • 57. Skill 43: DISTINGUISH SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS A subject pronoun is used as the subject of the verb An object pronoun can be used as the object of a verb or the object of a preposition SUBJECT OBJECT I Me You You He Him She Her It It We Us They Them Sally gave the book to John. She gave it to him.
  • 58. SKILL 44: DISTINGUISH POSSESIVE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS • Possessive adjectives and pronouns both show who or what ¨owns¨ a noun. • Adjectives and possessive pronouns do not have the same function. • A possessive adjective describes a noun, it must be accompanied by a noun • A possessive pronoun takes the place of a noun, it can’t be accompanied by a noun They lent me their book. They lent me theirs.
  • 59. The following chart outlines the possessives and their uses: POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS My Mine Your Yours His His Her Hers Its - Our Ours Their Theirs Must be accompanied by Cannot be accompanied noun by a noun
  • 60. Skill 45: CHECK PRONOUN REFERENCE FOR AGREEMENT After we check that the subject and object pronouns and the possessives are used correctly, we should also check each of these pronouns and possessives for agreement. The boy will cause trouble if you let him. Everyone must give his/her* name. PRONOUN AGREEMENT 1. Be sure that every pronoun and possessive agrees with the noun it refers to. 2. You generally check back in the sentence for agreement *In informal speaking we can use their/them
  • 61. SKILL 46: USE BASIC ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS CORRECTLY Adjectives are used in place of adverbs, or adverbs are used in place of adjectives. Adjectives and adverbs have very different uses. Adjectives have only one job: they describe nouns or pronouns. Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. She is a beautiful woman. She is beautiful. ADJ. NOUN PRO. ADJ. She sings beautifully. VERB ADV. She is a beautifully dressed woman. ADV. ADJ. NOUN She is a truly beautifully dressed woman. ADV. ADV. ADJ. NOUN
  • 62. Skill 47: Use Adjectives after Linking Verbs • Generally an adverb rather than an adjective will come directly after a verb because the adverb is describing the verb. She spoke nicely. VERB ADV. This adverb (nicely) describes the verb spoke. • You must be careful if the verb is a linking verb. A linking verb is followed by an adjective rather than an adverb. A linking verb is a non-action (describes a state) verb that needs a complement. Examples: She looks nice. SUB. ADJ. LINKING VERBS: appear feel seem be look smell become prove taste
  • 63. SKILL 48. POSITION ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS CORRECTLY THE POSITION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS A one-word adjective comes before the noun it describes, it does not come ADJECTIVES directly after. ADVERBS An adverb can appear in many positions. It cannot be used between a verb and its object. Adjectives and adverbs can appear in incorrect positions in the Written Expression Section. The two common errors are: - The position of adjectives with the nouns they describe. - The position of adverbs with objects. In English it is correct to place a one-word adjective in front of the noun it describes. The information important is on the first page. Here the adjective “important” should come before the noun information, this is because important describes information. The important information is on the first page.
  • 64. • You should be aware of the position of adverbs with objects of verbs. when a verb has an object, an adverb describing the verb should not come between the verb and its object. He has taken recently an English course. Verb Adv. Object • There are many possible corrections for this sentence. Recently he has taken an English course He has recently taken an English course He has taken an English course recently.
  • 65. SKILL 49: Do not confuse –ly Adjectives with Adverbs ending in –ly -LY ADJECTIVES costly likely daily quarterly northerly early lively hourly weekly easterly friendly lonely monthly yearly southerly kindly manly nightly lovely westerly
  • 66. SKILL 50: USE PREDICATE ADJECTIVES AFTER LINKING VERBS The snake on the rock was alive. CORRECT The alive* snake was lying on the rock. INCORRECT • In the first example, the predicate adjective alive is used correctly after the liking verb was to describe the subject snake. In the second example, the predicate adjective alive is used incorrectly in front of the noun snake. In this position, the adjective live should be used.
  • 67. SKILL 50: USE PREDICATE ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY Predicate adjectives Forms used in front of noun alike like, similar alive live, living alone lone afraid frightened asleep sleeping A predicate adjective appears after a linking verb such as be. It cannot appear directly in front of the noun that it describes.
  • 68. SKILL 51: USE –ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY The woman cleans the car. VERB The cleaning woman worked on the car. ADJECTIVE The woman put the cleaned car back in the garage. ADJECTIVE • In the first example, cleans is the verb of the sentence. In the second example, cleaning is a verbal adjective describing woman. In the third example, cleaned is a verbal adjective describing car. The cleaning* car… is not correct because a car cannot do the action of cleaning. (active) The cleaned* woman… is not correct because a woman cannot receive the action of the verb clean. (passive)
  • 69. SKILL 51: USE –ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY -ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES TYPE MEANING USE EXAMPLE It does the … the happily playing -ING Active action of the children…. verb. (The children play.) It receives the … the frequently played -ED Passive action of the verb. record… (Someone plays the record.)
  • 70. Skills: 52-54: PROBLEMS WITH ARTICLES: Articles Countable Contable Uncontable Singular Plural Nouns Nouns Nouns Indefinite a dollar ---- dollars ----money (General) an apple ---- apples ----juice Definite the dollar the dollars the money (Specific) the apple the apples the juice
  • 71. SKILL 52: Use Articles with Singular Nouns A singular noun must have an article (a/an, the) or some other determiner such as my or each. A plural noun or an uncountable noun may or may not have an article. I have money. (Uncountable--- no article needed) I have books. (Countable plural--- no article needed) I have a book. (Countable singular--- article needed)
  • 72. SKILL 53: Distinguish A/An A A is used in front of a singular noun with a consonant sound. AN AN is used in front of a singular noun with a vowel sound. Be careful of words beginning with letters such as u, o, e, x or h. They may begin with either a vowel or a consonant sound. A university A hand A one- way A A xerox street euphemism machine An unhappy An hour An omen An event An x-ray man machine
  • 73. Skill 54: Make Articles agree with Nouns • The definite article “the” is for both singular and plural nouns • The indefinite article “a/an” is used only with singular nouns. • One very common agreement error is to use the singular indefinite “a/an” with a plural noun. He saw a new movies. (incorrect) He saw a new movie. (singular) He saw new movies (plural)
  • 74. Skill 55: Distinguish Specific and General Ideas • With countable singular nouns, it is possible to use either the definite or the indefinite article. BUT THEY HAVE DIFFERENT MEANINGS. ¨A or An (versus) THE¨ • A or An: 1. Use it when there are many, and you don´t know which one it is. 2. Use it when there are many, and you don´t care which one it is. Tom will bring a book tomorow. (any book)
  • 75. THE: 1. Use it when it is the only one. 2. Use it when there are many, and you and your listener know which one it is. Tom will bring the book tomorow. (a specific book.)
  • 76. Skills 56-57: Problems with Prepositions Prepositions Literal way Idiomatic way It’s very far Means exactly from the real what you expect meaning Example The boy ran up the mountain. v/s I call up my friend. Literal / Idiomatic meaning
  • 77. Prepositions Prepositions are not only used to show time, place, and agent, but are also used in combination with verbs, adjectives, nouns, and in many common set expressions. We cannot list all prepositions, but some important groups are: 1. Verb + Preposition depend on lead to 2. Adjective/Participle + Preposition surprised at famous for 3. Noun + Preposition example of possibility of 4. Other Combinations with Prepositions as a result of in addition to 5. Prepositions of Time and Place on May 16 in Washington 6. Prepositions in Common Expressions at present in general
  • 78. VERB + PREPOSITION account for contribute to insist on plan on believe in depend on lead to rely on belong to detach from obtain from result in confined to fight for overcome by withdraw from ADJECTIVE/PARTICIPLE + PREPOSITION accustomed to different from necessary for responsible for afraid of expert at opossed to successful in based on free from possible for surprised at compared to famous for related to typical of NOUN + PREPOSITION cause of equivalent of influence on result of cost of evidence of need for use of danger of example of possibility of solution to effect on increase in reason for supply of
  • 79. OTHER COMBINATIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS according to in the process of as a consequence of in view of as a result of on account of because of on behalf of by means of on the basis of in addition to prior to in spite of with the exception of in terms of with the purpose of PREPOSITIONS IN COMMON EXPRESSIONS at times by land/sea/air at present by far at first/last by chance at the moment by accident by day/night in common on fire in general on the other hand in existence on the whole in the future/past on purpose in theory on land
  • 80. PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE • Prepositions of Time at time of day (at 8 a.m.) noon, night midnight in parts of the day (in the morning/evening/afternoon) month (in July) season (in the fall) year (in 1980) decade (in the 1980s) century (in the nineteenth century) on days of the week (on Monday) dates (on March 20) for/since duration of time (for three days) point in time (since March 20) from . . . to from beginning time . . . to ending (from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m.)
  • 81. PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE • Prepositions of Place at address (at 200 Main Street) on street/road/avenue (on Kings Road) in building (in the drugstore) city (in Los Angeles) state (in California) country (in Japan) continent (in Africa) from . . . to from beginning point . . . to ending point (from Alaska to California)
  • 82. Skill 56-57: Problems with Prepositions • Sometimes an incorrect preposition is given in a sentence in the Written Expression section of the TOEFL test. The game was called on because of the rain. It must be called off – (canceled) I knew I could count in you to do a good job. It must be count on someone • Sometimes a necessary preposition has been omitted from a sentence in the Written Expression section of the TOEFL test. Can you wait me after the game. It should be: wait for me. I plan attending the meeting. It should be: plan on attending.
  • 83. Skill 58: Distinguish Make and Do •Make and Do can be confused in English because their meanings are so similar. •Make often has the idea of creating or constructing. The following expressions show some of the possible uses of make: She likes to make her own clothes. Would you like to make a cake for dessert? If you make a mistake, you should correct it. He was unable to make a response to the threat.
  • 84. • Do often has the idea of completing or performing. The following expressions show some of the possible uses of do: This morning she did all the dishes. The students are doing assignments. The janitors did the work they were assigned. You can do your laundry at the laundromat. Many uses of make and do are idiomatic and therefore difficult to classify. http://www.epcc.edu/ftp/Homes/tracyvm/dovsmake.html
  • 85. Skill 59: Distinguish like, alike, unlike, and dislike • Like, alike, unlike and dislike sometimes are confused because they look so similar but they have many different uses. 1) Like and alike John and Tom are alike. John and Tom worked in a like manner. As you see like and alike are adjectives that have similar meaning. Alike is a predicate adjective, so we can only use it after a linking verb. Like is used immediately before a noun so it is an adjective form.
  • 86. 2) Like and unlike Jonh is like Tom. John is unlike Tom. Here both words have opposite meanings, they are working as prepositions so they must be followed by objects. The prepositions like and unlike can also be used at the beginning of a sentence. 3) Like and dislike John and Tom like the course. John and Tom dislike the course. Here both words are written as verbs, so they are used with subjects.
  • 87. SKILL 60: DINTINGUISH OTHER, ANOTHER, AND OTHERS To decide how to use other, another or others, we must consider three things: 1.- If it is singular or plural. 2.- If it is definite (the) or indefinite (a). 3.- If it is an adjective ( it appears with a noun) or if it is a pronoun (it appears by itself).
  • 88. SINGULAR PLURAL I have another I have other book. books. INDEFINITE I have another. I have others. I have the other I have the other book. books. DEFINITE I have the other. I have the others.
  • 89. Bibliography: Broukal, Milada. In-A-Flash: Grammar for the TOEFL Test. New Jersey: Thomson Learning, Inc. 2001. Phillips, Deborah. Longman Preparation Course for the TEFL Test. The Paper Test. New York: Pearson Education, 2003.