The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter the blood to remove wastes and produce urine. The kidneys contain millions of nephrons, which are the functional filtering units. Urine is formed in the nephrons through glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. Urine flows from the kidneys to the bladder via the ureters for storage and then exits the body through the urethra. The urinary system plays an important role in homeostasis by regulating fluid balance and removing waste.

1. HUMAN URINARY
SYSTEM
PROF. AMOL B DEORE
MVP’S INSTITUTE OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES,
NASHIK (INDIA)

2. INTRODUCTION
• AS THE BODY METABOLIZES THE VARIOUS FOODS AND
NUTRIENTS TAKEN IN THROUGH THE DIGESTIVE TRACT, BODY
CELLS PRODUCE METABOLIC WASTES IN THE FORM OF CARBON
DIOXIDE, HEAT, AND WATER.
• THE BREAKDOWN OF PROTEINS INTO AMINO ACIDS AND THE
METABOLISM OF THE AMINO ACIDS PRODUCE NITROGENOUS
WASTES, LIKE AMMONIA. THE HARMFUL AMMONIA IS
CONVERTED BY LIVER ENZYMES INTO LESS HARMFUL UREA.
• IN ADDITION, THE BODY ACCUMULATES EXCESS IONS OF
SODIUM, CHLORIDE, POTASSIUM, HYDROGEN, SULFATE, AND
PHOSPHATE. IT IS THE ROLE OF THE URINARY SYSTEM TO
MAINTAIN A BALANCE OF THESE PRODUCTS AND TO REMOVE
EXCESSES FROM THE BLOOD.

4. • THE URINARY SYSTEM CONSISTS OF
• TWO KIDNEYS: THEY FILTER THE BLOOD & EXCRETE URINE.
• TWO URETERS: THEY TRANSPORT THE URINE FROM KIDNEYS
TO THE URINARY BLADDER.
• THE BLADDER: THIS COLLECTS THE URINE AND ACTS AS
TEMPORARY URINE STORAGE.
• THE URETHRA: THROUGH WHICH THE URINE IS
DISCHARGED FROM URINARY BLADDER TO OUTSIDE,
PROCESS IS CALLED AS MICTURITION.

5. FUNCTIONS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
• EXCRETION
THEY ARE THE MAJOR EXCRETORY ORGANS OF THE BODY,
FILTERING LARGE AMOUNTS OF FLUIDS FROM THE BLOOD
INCLUDING NITROGENOUS METABOLIC WASTES PRODUCTS,
MINERALS, SOME DRUGS, AND TOXINS.
• MAINTAIN BLOOD VOLUME AND CONCENTRATION
REGULATE THE CONCENTRATION OF IONS IN BODY FLUIDS AND
BLOOD, SO THE PROPER BALANCE OF SODIUM, CHLORIDE,
POTASSIUM, CALCIUM, AND PHOSPHATE IONS IS MAINTAINED.
• PH REGULATION
THEY REGULATE THE H+ ION CONCENTRATION OF THE BLOOD.
THUS HELP TO REGULATE THE PHYSIOLOGICAL PH THE BLOOD.

6. • REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE
THEY HELP TO REGULATE BLOOD PRESSURE BY
SECRETING THE ENZYME RENIN, WHICH ACTIVATES
RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN–ALDOSTERONE PATHWAY. THESE
SUBSTANCES PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE
REGULATION OF PLASMA VOLUME AND THEREFORE
BLOOD PRESSURE.
• ERYTHROCYTE PRODUCTION
KIDNEY PRODUCES THE HORMONE ERYTHROPOIETIN,
WHICH STIMULATES RED BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION
FROM RED BONE MARROW. ERYTHROPOIETIN IS
SECRETED IN RESPONSE TO RENAL HYPOXIA. THEY HELP
REGULATE THE ERYTHROCYTES COUNT IN THE BLOOD.
• VITAMIN D ACTIVATION

7. ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEYS

8. KIDNEYS ARE BEAN SHAPED
ORGANS, ABOUT 11 CM
LONG, 6 CM WIDE AND
WEIGH 150 GM. THE KIDNEYS
ARE LOCATED JUST ABOVE
THE WAIST AND EACH SIDE
OF THE POSTERIOR WALL OF
THE ABDOMEN. KIDNEYS ARE
LOCATED AT THE LEVEL OF
12TH THORACIC VERTEBRA
TO 3RD LUMBAR VERTEBRA.
THE RIGHT KIDNEY IS
SLIGHTLY LOWER THAN THE
LEFT KIDNEY BECAUSE LIVER
OCCUPIES A LARGE AREA ON
THE RIGHT SIDE.

10. EACH KIDNEY IS SURROUNDED BY THREE LAYERS OF
TISSUE.
• RENAL FASCIA: THE OUTERMOST LAYER IS MADE UP
OF DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE THAT FIXES THE
KIDNEY TO THE ABDOMINAL WALL.
• ADIPOSE CAPSULE: THE SECOND MIDDLE LAYER IS
MADE UP OF MASS OF ADIPOSE (FATTY) TISSUE THAT
PROTECTS THE KIDNEY FROM TRAUMA.
• RENAL CAPSULE: THE INNERMOST FIBROUS LAYER
THAT ACTS AS A BARRIER AGAINST THE SPREAD OF
INFECTION AND TRAUMA TO THE KIDNEY.
THE HILUM IS A NOTCH IN THE CONCAVE MEDIAL
BORDER OF EACH KIDNEY. THE RENAL ARTERY AND
NERVES ENTER IN THE KIDNEY WHILE RENAL VEINS,
RENAL PELVIS AND URETER EXIT THE KIDNEY.

11. RENAL PYRAMIDS: THE RENAL MEDULLA IS
COMPOSED OF 8-18 CONE SHAPED STRUCTURES
CALLED AS RENAL PYRAMIDS. THEY ARE
STRIATED, TRIANGULAR STRUCTURES
CONTAINING RENAL TUBULES AND BLOOD
VESSELS. THE BASES OF PYRAMIDS FACE THE
CORTEX AND WHOSE TIPS ARE CALLED RENAL
PAPILLAE THAT POINT TO THE CENTER OF THE
KIDNEY.
RENAL PELVIS: RENAL PELVIS IS A FENNEL
SHAPED STRUCTURE WHICH ACTS AS A RECEIVER
FOR THE URINE FORMED BY KIDNEY. THE PELVIS
CONTAINS CUPLIKE EXTENSIONS CALLED MAJOR
AND MINOR CALYCES. EACH MINOR CALYX
RECEIVES URINE FROM COLLECTING DUCT AND
DELIVERS URINE TO MAJOR CALYX. FROM MAJOR
CALYX, THE URINE IS DRAINS INTO THE RENAL
PELVIS AND FINALLY TO THE URETER.
THE NEPHRONS: THE CORTEX AND RENAL
PYRAMIDS ARE COMPOSED OF ABOUT 1 MILLION
OF MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURES CALLED
NEPHRONS. THE NEPHRONS ARE THE
FUNCTIONAL UNITS OF THE KIDNEYS.

12. THE ANATOMY OF THE NEPHRONS
The nephrons are the basic structural &
functional units of the kidneys. A normal
kidney contains 1 to 1.5 million nephrons.
The total length of nephron ranges from 45
to 65 mm. Each nephron begins consists of
two portions: a renal corpuscle and renal
tubule.

13. RENAL CORPUSCLE

14. • THE RENAL CORPUSCLES ARE LOCATED IN THE
CORTEX OF THE KIDNEY. IT HAS TWO COMPONENTS:
A NETWORK OF BLOOD CAPILLARIES (DIAMETER
ABOUT 200ΜM), CALLED THE GLOMERULUS WHICH IS
SURROUNDED BY A DOUBLE WALLED EPITHELIAL
CUP, CALLED THE GLOMERULAR (BOWMAN’S)
CAPSULE.
• BLOOD ENTERS INTO THE GLOMERULUS THROUGH
AN AFFERENT ARTERIOLE AND EXISTS THROUGH AN
EFFERENT ARTERIOLE. EFFERENT ARTERIOLE IS
SMALLER IN DIAMETER THAN AFFERENT ARTERIOLE.
THE OUTER LAYER OF GLOMERULAR CAPSULE IS
SEPARATED BY INNER LAYER BY A CAPSULAR SPACE.

17. • THE INNER LAYER OF BOWMAN’S CAPSULE IS
MADE OF PODOCYTES. PODOCYTES CONSIST
OF THOUSANDS OF FOOT LIKE STRUCTURES
CALLED PEDICELS. THESE PEDICELS ARE
COMPOSED OF SPACES CALLED AS
FILTRATION SLITS (PORES) WHICH ACTS AS
FILTER. THEY MAKE INNER MEMBRANE VERY
PERMEABLE.
• THE OUTER LAYER OF BOWMAN’S CAPSULE
HAS NO PORES AND IS NOT PERMEABLE. THE
CAPSULAR SPACE BETWEEN THE INNER AND
OUTER LAYERS OF BOWMAN’S CAPSULE

19. RENAL TUBULE

20. • PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE: THE FIRST PART OF THE
RENAL TUBULE CALLED THE PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED
TUBULE, LOCATED IN THE CORTEX. IT IS MADE UP OF
CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM WITH BRUSH BORDERS OF
MICROVILLI ON THEIR SURFACE. MICROVILLI GREATLY
INCREASE THEIR SURFACE AREA FOR REABSORPTION AND
SECRETION.
• LOOP OF HENLE: THE NEXT SECTION OF THE TUBULE IS
CALLED THE DESCENDING LIMB OF HENLE, WHICH
NARROWS IN DIAMETER AS IT DIPS INTO THE MEDULLA OF
THE KIDNEY. THE TUBULE THEN BENDS INTO A U-SHAPED
HAIR PIN LIKE STRUCTURE KNOWN AS THE LOOP OF
HENLE. AS THE TUBULE STRAIGHTENS, IT INCREASES IN
DIAMETER AND ASCENDS TOWARD THE CORTEX OF THE
KIDNEY. HERE IT IS CALLED THE ASCENDING LIMB OF
HENLE. IT IS MADE UP OF SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM.

21. • DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE: IN THE CORTEX, THE TUBULE
AGAIN BECOMES CONVOLUTED AND IS NOW CALLED THE
DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE. IT IS MADE UP OF CUBOIDAL
EPITHELIUM.
• ALL PARTS OF THE RENAL TUBULE ARE SURROUNDED
BY PERITUBULAR CAPILLARIES, WHICH ARISE FROM THE
EFFERENT ARTERIOLE. THE PERITUBULAR CAPILLARIES WILL
RECEIVE THE MATERIALS REABSORBED BY THE RENAL TUBULES.
IN THE MEDULLA, DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULES OF SEVERAL
NEPHRONS CONNECTED TO A SINGLE COLLECTING DUCT.
COLLECTING DUCTS NOW PASS THROUGH THE RENAL
PYRAMIDS AND OPEN INTO THE CALYCES OF THE PELVIS
THROUGH A NUMBER OF LARGER PAPILLARY DUCTS. THEY PASS
THE URINE INTO THE RENAL PELVIS.

22. TYPES OF NEPHRON

23. CORTICAL AND JUXTAMEDULLARY
NEPHRONS• SOME NEPHRONS HAVE SHORT LOOP OF HENLE
WHERE AS OTHERS HAVE LONG. THE CORTICAL
NEPHRONS USUALLY LOCATED IN TO THE RENAL
CORTEX.
• THE JUXTAMEDULLARY NEPHRONS USUALLY HAVE
THEIR GLOMERULUS DEEP IN THE CORTEX, AND
ITS LONG LOOP OF HENLE IN TO THE RENAL
MEDULLA. ABOUT 10-20% OF THE NEPHRONS IN
KIDNEY ARE JUXTAMEDULLARY NEPHRONS. THEY
ENABLE THE KIDNEYS TO EXCRETE VERY DILUTE
OR VERY CONCENTRATED URINE.

24. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE URINE
FORMATION
• THE THREE MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF
NEPHRONS ARE TO CONTROL
BLOOD CONCENTRATION AND
VOLUME BY REMOVING SELECTED
AMOUNTS OF WATER AND
SOLUTES, HELP REGULATE BLOOD
PH, AND REMOVE TOXIC WASTE
FROM THE BLOOD.

26. GLOMERULAR FILTRATION
GLOMERULAR FILTRATION IS A PROCESS IN WHICH WATER
AND OTHER SOLUTES OF THE BLOOD PLASMA FILTERED
THROUGH THE GLOMERULAR BLOOD CAPILLARIES INTO THE
BOWMAN’S CAPSULE. VERY SMALL MOLECULES CAN PASS
THROUGH THE SEMIPERMEABLE MEMBRANE INTO THE
BOWMAN’S CAPSULE TO FORM GLOMERULAR FILTRATE.
THE GLOMERULAR FILTRATE CONSISTS OF:
• WATER;
• ELECTROLYTES INCLUDING NA+, K+, CA+2, MG+2, CL-,
HCO3
-
, SO4
2-, PHOSPHATE IONS;
• GLUCOSE, UREA, CREATININE AND URIC ACID;
• AMINO ACIDS, LACTIC, CITRIC, ASCORBIC ACIDS AND MANY
DRUG METABOLITES.

27. EFFERENT ARTERIOLE IS SMALLER IN DIAMETER THAN
AFFERENT ARTERIOLE HENCE BLOOD PRESSURE IS TWICE
THAT IN THE CAPILLARY NETWORK. THE GLOMERULAR
FILTRATION PRESSURE IS ABOUT 10 MMHG AND IS
RESPONSIBLE FOR FILTERING LARGE AMOUNT OF WATER,
GLUCOSE, AMINO ACIDS, VITAMINS, NA+, UREA, URIC ACID
AND CREATININE.
GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE (GFR): THE VOLUME OF
GLOMERULAR FILTRATE FORMED BY BOTH KIDNEYS IN ONE
MINUTE I.E. 125 ML/MIN OR 180 LITERS A DAY.

29. TUBULAR REABSORPTION
TUBULAR REABSORPTION TAKES PLACE FROM THE RENAL
TUBULES INTO THE PERITUBULAR CAPILLARIES.
IN A 24-HOUR PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 99% OF THE
FILTRATE IS REABSORBED BACK INTO THE BLOOD IN THE
PERITUBULAR CAPILLARIES. ONLY ABOUT 1% OF THE
FILTRATE WILL ENTER THE URINARY BLADDER AS URINE.
TUBULAR REABSORPTION TAKES PLACE IN THE PROXIMAL
CONVOLUTED TUBULES (ABOUT 65%), DISTAL
CONVOLUTED TUBULES AND COLLECTING TUBULES.

30. • HIGH THRESHOLD SOLUTES:
THE SOLUTES WHICH ARE ESSENTIAL TO THE BODY AND
ARE COMPLETELY REABSORBED BACK INTO PERITUBULAR
BLOOD CAPILLARIES ARE CALLED HIGH THRESHOLD
SOLUTES, E.G. GLUCOSE, AMINO ACIDS, VITAMINS, WATER
ETC.
• LOW THRESHOLD SOLUTES:
THE SUBSTANCES WHICH ARE REABSORBED ONLY UPTO A
SLIGHT EXTENT ARE CALLED LOW THRESHOLD SOLUTES,
E.G. UREA, URIC ACID AND ELECTROLYTES.
• NON-THRESHOLD SOLUTES:
THE SOLUTES WHICH ARE NOT REABSORBED AT ALL FROM
THE GLOMERULAR FILTRATE ARE CALLED NON-THRESHOLD
SUBSTANCES, E.G. CREATININE, HIPPURIC ACID.

31. TUBULAR SECRETION
• TUBULAR SECRETION INVOLVES THE MOVEMENT OF
SUBSTANCES FROM THE PERITUBULAR CAPILLARY BLOOD
INTO FILTRATE IN THE KIDNEY TUBULES. TUBULAR
SECRETION PRIMARILY WORKS TO ELIMINATE TOXIC
SUBSTANCES OR BYPRODUCTS OF METABOLISM.
• THOSE COMPONENTS OF PLASMA WHICH ARE NOT
REQUIRED FOR THE BODY BECOME SECRETED IN PROXIMAL
AND DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE. THESE SECRETED
SUBSTANCES INCLUDE POTASSIUM ION K+, HYDROGEN IONS
H+, AMMONIUM IONS NH4+, UREA, CREATININE AND THE
DRUGS INCLUDING PENICILLIN, PARA-AMINOHIPPURIC ACID.
• THE SECRETION OF HYDROGEN IONS PLAYS AN IMPORTANT
ROLE IN MAINTAINING ACID- BASE BALANCE AND
PHYSIOLOGICAL PH.

33. CHARACTERISTICS OF URINE
• COLOR: CLEAR TRANSPARENT TO PALE YELLOW
• ODOR: MILD AROMATIC. URINE HAS A SLIGHT ODOR. IT WILL DEVELOP
AN AMMONIA ODOR AFTER STANDING DUE THE BREAKDOWN OF UREA.
• PH: ACIDIC ~ 5.0
• VOLUME: 1 TO 2 LITERS/DAY
• SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.001 TO 1.035
NORMAL COMPONENTS:
• WATER,
• ELECTROLYTES INCLUDING NA+, H+, K+, CA+2, MG+2, CL-, SULPHATE,
PHOSPHATE IONS, OXALATES, UREA, URIC ACID, AMMONIA &
CREATININE.

34. Sr.
No.
Components Condition Significance
1. Proteins Proteinuria Bacterial infection to the kidney,
glomerulonephritis, high blood
pressure, pregnancy, heart failure,
severe hypertension and renal
disease
1. Albumin Albuminuria Glomerulonephritis,
Diabetes mellitus
Bacterial toxins, heavy metals
1. Glucose Glycoseuria Diabetes mellitus
1. Ketone
bodies
Ketoneuria Untreated diabetes mellitus,
starvation, anorexia, ketosis
1. Bilirubin Bilirubinuria Liver viral infection, Hepatitis,
Jaundice, cirrhosis
1. Urobilinogen Urobilinogenuri
a
Hemolytic anemia, pernicious
anemia, hepatitis, jaundice, biliary
obstruction, cirrhosis
1. erythrocytes Hematuria Kidney failure,
Glomerulonephritis, urinary tract
infection, tumors, trauma,
menstrual bleeding
1. Leukocytes Pyuria Urinary tract infection, bladder
infection, pyelonephritis

35. URETERSTHE URETERS ARE TWO MUSCULAR TUBES THAT DRAIN URINE FROM
THE KIDNEYS TO THE URINARY BLADDER. EACH URETER IS ABOUT 25
TO 30 CM (10-12 INCHES) LONG. THE PRINCIPLE FUNCTION OF THE
URETERS IS TO TRANSPORT URINE FROM THE RENAL PELVIS INTO THE
URINARY BLADDER DUE TO ITS PERISTALTIC CONTRACTION. AFTER
THE URINE ENTERS THE BLADDER FROM THE URETER, SMALL FOLDS IN
THE BLADDER MUCOSA ACT LIKE VALVE PREVENTING BACKFLOW OF
THE URINE.
THE OUTLET OF THE BLADDER IS CONTROLLED BY SPHINCTER MUSCLE.
A FULL BLADDER STIMULATES SENSORY NERVES IN THE BLADDER WALL
THAT RELAX THE SPHINCTER AND ALLOW RELEASE OF URINE.
HOWEVER THE RELAXATION OF SPHINCTER IS UNDER VOLUNTARY
CONTROL.

36. URINARY BLADDER
THE URINARY BLADDER IS A HOLLOW MUSCULAR
AND DISTENSIBLE ORGAN LOCATED IN THE
PELVIC CAVITY POSTERIOR TO THE PUBIC
SYMPHYSIS. THE SHAPE OF THE URINARY
BLADDER DEPENDS ON HOW MUCH URINE IT
CONTAINS. IT IS COLLAPSE WHEN EMPTY. IT
BECAME SPHERICAL WHEN SLIGHTLY EXPANDED.
URINARY BLADDER CONSISTS OF SMOOTH
TRIANGULAR REGION IN THE FLOOR CALLED AS
TRIGONE. THE INTERIOR OF THE BLADDER HAS
THREE OPENINGS, THE TWO OPENINGS FROM THE

38. • THE AVERAGE CAPACITY OF THE BLADDER IS 700 TO 800
ML. WHEN THE AMOUNT OF URINE REACHES 200 TO 400
ML, STRETCH RECEPTORS IN THE BLADDER SEND NERVE
IMPULSES TO THE SPINAL CORD. WHICH THEN SEND A
REFLEX NERVE IMPULSE BACK TO THE URETHRAL
SPHINCTER, CAUSING IT TO RELAX AND ALLOW THE
MICTURATION. URINE IS EXPELLED FROM THE BLADDER BY
AN ACT KNOWN AS MICTURITION, COMMONLY REFERRED
TO AS URINATION.

39. HORMONAL REGULATION OF URINE

40. • ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH) IS RELEASED BY THE
POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND WHEN THE AMOUNT OF
WATER IN THE BODY DECREASES. ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE
INCREASES NA+ AND WATER REABSORPTION IN THE RENAL
TUBULES OF THE KIDNEYS THERE BY DECREASING URINE
OUTPUT.

41. Low Blood Pressure
+
--
Inhibition
Hypothalamus
Stimulates posterior
pituitary gland
Increased secretion of
Antidiuretic Hormone
Increased water reabsorption by
renal tubules
Increased blood volume
Increased blood Pressure
Increased blood flow and supply

42. RENIN, ANGIOTENSINOGEN AND
ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM
WHEN BLOOD VOLUME AND BLOOD PRESSURE DECREASE, THE
JUXTAGLOMERULAR CELLS SECRETE THE ENZYME RENIN INTO THE
BLOOD. RENIN CONVERTS ANGIOTENSINOGEN IN TO ANGIOTENSIN-I
(INACTIVE). ANGIOTENSIN CONVERTING ENZYME (ACE) CONVERTS
ANGIOTENSIN I TO ANGIOTENSIN II, WHICH IS THE ACTIVE FORM OF
THE HORMONE.
ANGIOTENSIN II AFFECTS RENAL PHYSIOLOGY IN THREE MAIN WAYS:
1. IT DECREASES THE GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE BY CAUSING
VASOCONSTRICTION OF THE AFFERENT ARTERIOLES.
2. IT ENHANCES REABSORPTION OF NA+, CL¯, AND WATER IN THE
PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE
3. IT STIMULATES THE ADRENAL CORTEX TO RELEASE ALDOSTERONE, A
HORMONE THAT IN TURN STIMULATES THE PRINCIPAL CELLS IN THE
COLLECTING DUCTS TO REABSORB MORE NA+AND CL¯ AND SECRETE
MORE K+. THE OSMOTIC CONSEQUENCE OF REABSORBING MORE NA+
AND CL¯ IS EXCRETING LESS WATER, WHICH INCREASES BLOOD VOLUME.

44. KIDNEY STONE
THEY ARE ALSO KNOWN AS RENAL CALCULI WHICH ARE COMPOSED OF
THE PRECIPITATES OF URIC ACID, MAGNESIUM OR CALCIUM
PHOSPHATE, OR CALCIUM OXALATE. ONE OR MORE STONES CAN BE IN
KIDNEYS OR URETER OR IN URINARY BLADDER FOUND. THEY CAN FORM
IN THE RENAL PELVIS OR IN THE COLLECTING DUCTS. WHEN A STONE
PASSES THROUGH THE URETER IT CAN BE VERY PAINFUL WITH
ACCOMPANYING NAUSEA. OBSTRUCTION OF URETER AND DISTENTION
WITH URINE CAN CAUSE SEVERE PAIN. THE PAIN EMERGES FROM THE
KIDNEY, ABDOMEN AND THE PELVIS. CAUSES INCLUDE: SEVERE
DEHYDRATION, LESS WATER CONSUMPTION, URINE PH IMBALANCE.

45. • GLOMERULONEPHRITIS IS AN INFLAMMATORY DISEASE OF KIDNEYS DUE TO
BACTERIAL INFECTION. CAUSATIVE BACTERIA INCLUDE E. COLI, STREPTOCOCCI,
STAPHYLOCOCCI ETC. THE BACTERIAL INFECTION AFFECTS THE FILTRATION
MEMBRANE IN THE RENAL CAPSULE AND GLOMERULUS. IT CAN BE A CHRONIC
CONDITION RESULTING IN KIDNEY FAILURE.
• SYMPTOMS INCLUDE –
• ANURIA: TOTAL ABSENCE OF URINE OUTPUT
• OLIGOURIA: URINE OUTPUT BECOME 200 ML/DAY I.E. DECREASE URINE OUTPUT
• BURNING SENSATION DURING URINATION
• PROTEINURIA & HEMATURIA

47. • OEDEMA IS SWELLING (INFLAMMATION) CAUSED BY EXCESSIVE AN
ABNORMAL INCREASE IN INTERSTITIAL FLUID VOLUME
(ACCUMULATION FLUID IN BODY TISSUES). EDEMA RESULTS FROM
INCREASED PERMEABILITY OF BLOOD VESSELS, WHICH PERMITS MORE
FLUID TO MOVE FROM BLOOD PLASMA INTO TISSUE SPACES.
ALTHOUGH EDEMA CAN AFFECT ANY PART OF BODY, IT IS MOST
COMMONLY NOTICES IN THE HANDS, ARMS, FEET, ANKLE, LUNGS
AND LEGS. EDEMA CAN BE RESULTING FROM PHYSICAL INACTIVITY,
MEDICATIONS, PREGNANCY, HEART FAILURE, KIDNEY FAILURE,
SURGERY, DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS, CIRRHOSIS OF LIVER.
• IF THE BLOOD CAPILLARIES LEAK FLUID INTO THE SURROUNDING
TISSUE THEN THE AREA WILL START TO SWELL.

48. •THANKING YOU