Endocrinology is a specialty of medicine; some would say a sub-specialty of internal medicine, which deals with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases related to hormones. Endocrinology covers such human functions as the coordination of metabolism, respiration, reproduction, sensory perception, and movement
3. Endocrinology is a specialty of
medicine; some would say a sub-
specialty of internal medicine, which
deals with the diagnosis and treatment
of diseases related to
hormones. Endocrinology covers such
human functions as the coordination of
metabolism, respiration, reproduction,
sensory perception, and movement.
4. Types of Hormones
Proteins, peptides and amino acid
derivatives
– Proteins are large molecules made of
many amino acids
– Peptides are smaller molecules typically
made of a few amino acids
– Amino acid derivatives are molecules
derived from a single amino acid
5. Lipid Hormones
Steroid hormones
– Derived from cholesterol
– All similar in structure, but small
differences confer different effects
– Similarities responsible for some cross
reactivity
Eicosanoids
– Derived from arachadonic acid (fat)
6. The hypothalamus
Integrates information and many functions of
the nervous system
The hypothalamus controls the function of
the pituitary gland in two ways
It can secrete releasing hormones that act on
the pituitary to stimulate secretion of
stimulating hormones
It can also stimulate the release of hormones
from the posterior pituitary via nervous input
7. The Pituitary
Divided into two halves
The anterior portion is comprised of
epithelial cells that act primarily as a
glandular structure
The posterior portion has extensive
innervation and responds to nervous
sytem input from the hypothalamus
12. Hormones of the Pituitary
Growth hormone
– Controls growth and glucose metabolism
– Mediated via the somatomedins
ACTH
– Acts on the adrenal gland to stimulate the release
of cortisol
Gonadotropins
– Leutinizing hormone- ovulation, secretion of sex
hormones
– Follicle stimulating hormone – development of
follicles and sperm cells
13. Prolactin – stimulates breasts to
develop milk
Melanocyte stimulating hormone
– Causes synthesis of melanin
14. Hormones of the Posterior
Pituitary
Antidiuretic hormone (aka
vasopressin)
– Causes the retention of fluid in the urine
– Combats dehydration
Oxytocin
– Causes lactation
– Contractions during child birth
15.
16. The Thyroid Gland
Secretes two hormones that regulate
metabolic rate
– Thyroxine (T4) – contains four iodine
atoms
– Triiodothyronine (T3) – contains three
iiodine atoms
– Insufficient iodine impairs T3 and T4
synthesis
17. The Parathyroid Gland
Primarily responsible for calcium
homeostasis
Parathyroid hormone
– Causes increased production of vitamin D
and increased absorption of calcium in
the intestine
– Also causes resorption of calcium from
the bones
– Increased retention of calcium in the
kidneys
19. Clinical Indication
Thyroid Hormones:
Replacement or supplement in hypothyroidism of
any cause
cretinism- mental & physical retardation in
children with chronic untreated hypothyroidism
nontoxic goiter in adults
myxedema in adults
20. Thyroid Hormones
Hormones (proteins) secreted from the thyroid
gland include:
Triiodothyronine (T3)
Thyroxine (T4)
and Thyrocalcitonin
TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone)
Is secreted from the anterior pituitary gland in
response to changes in the blood levels of T3
and T4
Triggers T3, T4 secretion from the thyroid
gland
21. T3, T4- concerned with muscle and nerve
tissue growth
• stimulates protein synthesis
• increases the intestinal absorption of glucose
• increases glycogen synthesis
• mobilizes fatty acids
• decreases serum cholesterol
• increases BMR (basal metabolic rate)
Thyroid Hormones
22. Adverse Effects Related to Overdosing
Symptoms are dose and time dependent and characteristic
of hyperthyroidism and increase in sympathetic tone:
Mental confusion to psychotic behavior
Increased blood pressure
Increased heart rate
Diarrhea
Weight loss
Sweating
Menstrual irregularities
Tremors
Headache
Nervousness
Anginal episodes
23. Cautions and Contraindications
Thyroid hormone therapy
is contraindicated in patients with myocardial
infarction
is not recommended for weight reduction in
the management of obesity
should be used with caution in patients
– With cardiovascular disease, diabetes, adrenal
insufficiency
– Who are elderly
25. Effects of Hypersecretion
or Hyperthyroidism
May be caused by tumors on the thyroid (thyrotoxic
crisis), pituitary, or hypothalamus
or
Autoimmune disease (Grave’s Disease)
– LATS (long-acting thyroid stimulating protein) not
the same as TSH but same responses occur
Symptoms are dose and time dependent and
characteristic of hyperthyroidism especially increased
sympathetic autonomic tone
26. Antithyroid Drugs
Mechanism of action
Accumulate within the thyroid and destroy
overactive tissue or inhibit the incorporation
of iodine for production of T3 and T4
Radioactive Iodide (immediate onset)
Methimazone (requires time to see effect)
Propylthiouracil (requires time to see effect)
27. Antithyroid Drugs Special
Considerations & Contraindications
Cross the placenta and affect fetal thyroid
development
Abrupt discontinuation of iodide may cause
thyroid storm
Iodide should be discontinued if fever, rash,
soreness in gums & teeth occur
Iodide-containing drugs are contraindicated in
patients with pulmonary edema
Radioactive iodide is present in the saliva and
urine 24 hours after dosing
28. Calcium Homeostasis
Parathyroid Hormones
Calcium ions
Essential for neuromuscular and endocrine
function
Serum levels strictly regulated by two
polypeptide hormones
– calcitonin (thyroid)
– parathormone (parathyroid)
29. Calcium Homeostasis
Parathormone
Stimulated when serum calcium levels are low
Stimulates bone resorption to mobilize calcium
Increases intestinal and renal reabsorption of
calcium
Calcitonin
Stimulated when serum calcium levels are high
Inhibits bone resorption
No effect on the intestine or kidney
Antagonizes parathormone
30. Calcium Disorders & Treatment
Hypocalcemia
Parathyroid damage during surgery
Treatment: calcium salts and vitamin D
Hypercalcemia
Neoplasms, multiple myeloma, renal
dysfunction
Treatment: diuretics to increase the renal
clearance of calcium
calcitonin and bisphosphonates
31. Degenerative Bone Disease
& Treatment
Osteoporosis
Decreased bone mass
Decreased mineral deposition
Increased bone resorption
Treatment: Bisphosphonates, estrogen
Paget’s Disease
Hyperactive bone metabolism
Fragile bone and microfractures
Treatment: Calcitonin, bisphosphonates
33. The Adrenal Glands
Adrenal medulla responsible for the
hormonal fight or flight response
Adrenal medulla releases epinephrine
(adrenaline) and small amounts of
norepinephrine
34. Fight or Flight Hormones
Increases breakdown of glycogen to
glucose in the liver
Increase heart rate
– Increases cardiac output to the tissues
Increases blood pressure
Increases metabolic rate in skeletal
muscle, cardiac muscle and nervous
tissue
35. The Adrenal Cortex
Produces gluccocorticoids
– Cortisol
Regulates blood glucose levels
Causes amino acids to be converted to
glucose in the liver
Cortisol secreted in times of stress to
maintain glucose and energy levels
36. Clinical Indication
Glucocorticoids
Replacement therapy in adrenal insufficiency
(Addison’s Disease)
Interrupt moderate to severe pain associated with
conditions of inflammation
Mineralocorticoids
Replacement therapy in adrenalectomy or adrenal
tumors
37. Glucocorticoids
Adrenal cortex secretes glucocorticoids
Typically referred to as steroids
Regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates
and proteins
Demand for cortisol rises during stress and
tissue repair (e.g. wound healing)
Produce and conserve glucose
Promote protein catabolism and
gluconeogenesis
Some mineralocorticoid activity i.e., sodium
retention
38. Corticosteroids
Source of steroids-natural & synthetic
cortisone, hydrocortisone, prednisone,
methylprenisolone, triamcinolone, betamethasone,
dexamethasone
Vary in duration of action and potency
Antiinflammatory action
stabilize cell membranes
prevent edema
Systemic use in patients with normal adrenal function
arthritis, collagen disease, rheumatic disorders, respiratory
disease, spinal cord injury
Topical use for skin irritation, rashes, itching
39. Corticosteroids Adverse Effects
Associated with high doses and chronic use
Exaggeration of steroid symptoms of Cushing’s
disease
mood changes
insomnia
weight gain, obesity
protein catabolism, muscle weakness, wasting
osteoporosis
decreased wound healing
increased infections
fat deposition, moon facies
Steroid addiction
personality changes- “steroid psychosis”
psychological dependency (falacy)
40. Steroid Contraindications
Patients with systemic fungal
infections
Local viral herpes infections
Topical application to the eyes or
orbital area
Live virus vaccinations
42. The pancreas produces insulin and
glucagon
– The primary blood glucose regulatory
hormones
Insulin produced in the beta cells of
the islets of Langerhans
Glucagon produced in the alpha cells
43. Insulin
The primary glucoregulatory hormone
Elevated in response to increased
blood glucose or amino acids
Inhibited when blood glucose is low
Diabetes results from perturbed insulin
metabolism
44. Diabetes
Type 1- insulin dependent diabetes
– The individual does not produce insulin
Type II- non-insulin dependent
diabetes mellitus (adult onset)
– The individual does not respond
appropriately to insulin
46. Pancreatic Endocrine Function
The pancreas secrets two polypeptide
hormones that regulate carbohydrate
metabolism and blood glucose levels
Insulin
Promotes glucose movement into cells
and carbohydrate storage
Glucagon
Increases glucose in the blood by stimulating
glycogen breakdown
47. Insulin & Glucagon Secretion
Insulin is secreted by beta cells in response to
elevated glucose levels
• Mobilizes glucose into skeletal, heart, fat cells
• Promotes storage of fat and protein
Glucagon is secreted by alpha cells in response to
low glucose levels
• Stimulates glyocogenolysis (breakdown)
• Mobilizes glucose into the circulation
48. • Defect in beta cell function
• Deficiency in insulin production and
secretion
• Type I DM is insulin dependent
(juvenile diabetes)
genetic predisposition
• Type II DM relative insulin deficiency
(maturity-onset)
aging, improper diet, obesity
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
49. Diabetes Mellitus
Symptoms
Persistently high blood glucose levels
Spill over into high urine glucose (glycosuria)
Volume of water excreted (polyuria)
Dehydration and thirst
Excessive fluid intake (polydipsia)
Excessive food intake (polyphagia)
Fat breakdown produces ketosis
Neuropathy, retinal hemorrhage
Renal dysfunction
Atherosclerosis
50. Treatment of Diabetes
Mellitus
Correct the metabolic imbalance with diet
adjustment and administration of
Insulins
Oral sulfonylureas
acetohexamide, glipizide, glyburide, tolazamide,
tolbutamide
Glucose absorption inhibitors
acarbose, miglitol
Antihyperglycemic drugs
Metformin, troglitazone
51. Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus
Insulin (Type I, II DM)
Sources: animal or recombinant DNA
Onset of action varies with each insulin
type
Provides single peak of glucose activity
Requires multiple daily doses
Injected 15 to 30 minutes before meals
Juice or sugar can reverse hypoglycemia
Salicylates, beta-blockers, MAOI potentiate
insulin-induced hypoglycemia
52. Treatment of Diabetes
Mellitus
Oral sulfonylureas (oral hypoglycemics)
Type II DM only
Enter the beta cells and cause insulin release
Vary in onset and duration of action
Delay in onset related to absorption
Not a substitute for insulin
Prolonged action sustains hypoglycemia
Cause gastrointestinal irritation, nausea,
diarrhea, weakness, fatigue, dizziness,
hypersensitivity reactions (rash), elevated serum
liver enzymes, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia &
anemia
53. Contraindications & Drug Interactions
with Oral Hypoglycemics
Contraindicated in patients:
With a known hypersensitivity
With complications of fever, ketoacidosis or
coma
With liver or renal disease, peptic ulcers
Who are pregnant
Drug Interactions occur because of
Protein binding displacement
Liver enzyme inhibition
Inhibition of glucose metabolism
54. Treatment of Diabetes
Mellitus
Glucose Absorption Inhibitors
Do not reduce blood glucose levels
Do not release insulin
Interfere with dietary carbohydrate digestion
Delay a peak in glucose absorption after meals
Are ingested with meals
Do not impair liver enzymes
Cause flatulence, diarrhea, and abdominal pain
Contraindicated in patients with ketoacidosis,
impaired absorption, or hypersensitivity reaction
55. Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus
Antihyperglycemic Drugs
Do not reduce blood glucose levels or release insulin
Keep glucose blood level from rising too fast
Decrease liver glucose production and intestinal
glucose absorption
Promote smoother distribution of glucose to tissues
Causes diarrhea, nausea, vomiting and flatulence
May cause lactic acidosis leading to respiratory and
cardiovascular distress
Contraindicated in patients with metabolic acidosis,
renal disease or abnormal creatinine clearance
56. The Testes and the
Ovaries
The testes produce testosterone
The ovaries produce estrogen and
progesterone
57. Clinical Indication
Female hormones
Replacement therapy in hypogonadism
and menopause, or fertility
enhancement, and adjunctive therapy
for cancer
Prevent ovulation or implantation in the
uterus
Alleviate menstrual disorders in
nonmenopausal women
58. Female Sex Hormones
Estrogens and Progestogens
LH and FSH secreted from the anterior pituitary gland
induce conditions for the secretion of estrogen and
progesterone
Estrogens secreted from developing cells in the ovaries
stimulate
• uterine lining and mammary glands
• motility within the fallopian tubes
• endometrium for implantation of a fertilized egg
Progesterone secreted from the corpus luteum
• completes development uterine lining for implantation
• stimulates mammary ducts for lactation
59. Pharmacological Actions
Contraception
Estrogen and progestogen combinations mimic the natural
secretory cycle so that
• FSH and LH secretions are suppressed
• ovulation is blocked
• cervical mucus is thickened decreasing the possibility of
implantation
Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)
Estrogens interact with receptors to reduce
• hot flashes, sweating, muscle & joint aches that occur
during menopause
• bone resorption and turnover that decreases bone mineral
density in osteoporosis
• coronary artery disease by decreasing blood pressure,
LDL- lipoproteins and insulin
60. Estrogen and Progestogens
Adverse Effects
Nausea
Vomiting
Headache
Dizziness
Irritability
Depression
Fluid retention
Breast tenderness
Weight gain
Thrombophlebitis (pain in legs, groin)
Double-vision
61. Female Sex Hormones
Contraindications
Use in pregnant women or those with a history of
Thrombophlebitis
Liver disease
Breast tumors
Estrogen-dependent cancers
Undiagnosed vaginal bleeding
Special considerations
Use in women with a history of
Diabetes
High blood pressure
Seizure disorders
62. Male Sex Hormones -
Androgens
Clinical Indication
In men
Replacement therapy in hypogonadism,
delayed puberty, and impotence due to
androgen deficiency
In women
Adjunctive therapy for inoperable breast
cancer and postpartum breast engorgement
63. Androgens Pharmacologic
Action
Anabolic action - Stimulate protein synthesis
– Clinical benefit- Increase body weight and appetite
– Nontherapeutic use- Increase muscle mass and
enhance athletic performance
Erythropoiesis-Stimulate production of RBCs
– Clinical benefit- Reverse refractory anemia
Inhibit tumor growth
– Clinical benefit- reduce pain & swelling in women with
fibrocystic breast disease
64. Adverse Effects
Men may develop Women may develop
Decreased sperm count Hirsutism
Increased breast tissue Menstrual irregularities
Sustained erection Acne
Tumors Deepening voice
Addiction syndrome
Men and women
Jaundice
Nausea
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Retention of sodium and water
Result from chronic high dose use
65. Androgens Special Considerations
and Contraindications
Contraindications
Men breast or prostate cancer
Pregnant women- virilization of fetus
Special considerations
Blood glucose levels may fluctuate in diabetic
patients
Bruising and localized hemorrhages may
increase in patients also receiving
anticoagulants