) Define Sociology and explain its origin, development, and divisions. 2) Describe the subject matter of Sociology of Education 3) Explain the importance of Sociology to the education system 4) Explain the way in which the education system in Tanzania has been shaped by the ideas of prominent sociologists.

1. SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

2. Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course the student will be able to:
1) Define Sociology and explain its origin,
development, and divisions.
2) Describe the subject matter of Sociology of
Education
3) Explain the importance of Sociology to the
education system
4) Explain the way in which the education
system in Tanzania has been shaped by the
ideas of prominent sociologists.

3. 5) Critically evaluate sociological theories
influencing the educational system.
6)Analyze issues that Sociology of Education
addresses.
7) Explain the relation between education and
culture.
8) Demonstrate an understanding of the role of
education in social mobility.

4. Course Content
1. Meaning of Sociology, its development and
classification.
2. Sociology of education – origin and
development.
3. Important sociologists influencing education:
Durkheim, Weber, Marx, Symbolic
interactionists, Freire, lllich.
4. Issues in Sociology of Education.

5. 5. Education and the socialization process.
6. The socialization Role of the teacher in the
school.
7. Agents of socialization.
8. Culture and education
9. Education and social mobility

6. Assessment methods
Observation, oral/written questions during the
lesson, worksheets, quizzes and tests, take-
homes for presentation
Assessment scheme
• 20% Written Assignments
• 20% Written tests
• 60% Final examination

7. 1. Meaning of Sociology in General
a) Definition
• The term Sociology is defined differently by
various authors as:
- The study of the formation and transfor-
mation of groups and the relationship of
groups and group members with one another.
- The study of associations in terms of
participation and cohesion, and dissociations
in terms of conflict.

8. • Other authors have defined Sociology as:
- The study of the various social interactions,
activities, associations, conflicts, roles and
other social phenomena in society.
- The study of social behaviour, group
interaction and relationships, and social
structures – how social relations arise,
develop and how they are sustained.

9. b) Origin and Development
• The word Sociology was first used by Augustine
Comte (1798-1857).
• Comte combined the Latin word Socius meaning
sharing in a group with the Greek word logos
meaning Science.
• He therefore defined the subject as the Science
of Society.
• Before Comte’s initiatives to make Sociology
autonomous, social phenomena were studied as
part of philosophy, religion and politics.

10. • In the 19th century however, there were certain
conditions which appeared to give rise to
Sociology as a distinct discipline.
• Socially, there was the recognition that problems
such as poverty which became rampant during
and after the industrial revolution period, were
social in nature and not natural.
• There was concern also about the social order
and how to maintain it especially during and after
the French Revolution.

11. • Within those recognitions and concerns it was
thought that natural science methods could
be adapted to study the extent of the social
problems and provide knowledge to facilitate
social reforms.
• These views encouraged the growth of a
sociological approach to understanding the
society and subsequently to sociology as a
distinct science of society.

12. • Philosophical historians like Karl Marx,
Augustine Comte, Herbert Spencer, and others
were changing interest from writing about
political society and finding new interest in
the study of industrial society.
• Themes like the family, the nature of society,
population, social institutions and
development were gaining ground in
sociological writing.

13. • Fom these humble beginings, sociology as a discipline
has steadily grown in scope and importance.
• It is now a discipline which specializes in studying key
social institutions as well as gauging the social value of
services provided viz. hunger eradication, nutrition
programmes, health and hygiene, family planning
programmes, etc.
• In view of its current expansion and extensive use,
Sociology covers a variety of areas in its expression of
general knowledge, research, problem solving.

14. c) The Main Areas (Themes) of Sociology
i) Human behaviour in relation to group setting
• The main thrust of Sociology lies on understanding
human behaviour (why do people behave as they do)
in relation to a groups social setting.
• As humans interact their behaviour must have some
influence on each other, with regard to the kinds of
social groups relationships that are formed among
members.
ii) Social Institutions
• Sociology is also involved in studying social institutions,
such as family, education,religion,

15. economy, and politics in order to determine the
value, roles and functions of such institutions in
the society, knowing that the society is
dependent on these social institutions for the
fulfilment of its needs, viz. the rearing,
socialization and education of the children.
• Failure or sucess of any of these institutions in
their work often leads to weakening or
strengthening of society.

16. iii) Culture of Society
• Another importat area of study addressed by
sociology is the culture of society.
• Culture is defined as the way of life of a
society which embraces society’s knowledge,
technology, beliefs, patterns of education
morals, art, laws, customs, ideas, material
goods and other forms of wealth.
• It is often said that cultures distinguish
societies from each other.

17. • Accordingly sociology studies different cultures as
they exist in different societies in order to:
- draw up the differences between societies or
groups;
- determine what values societies hold differently
and how;
- establish how cultures contribute to or influence
certain social functions viz marriage, child
upbringing, work performance, problem solving,
responsibility sharing, interactions, etc.

18. iv) Socila class formation or social stratification
• This is another subject area that Sociology
studies.
• In this concern, Sociology looks at certain forces
such as education level and occupation which
may influence the division of a society into
specific classes – low, middle and upper – in
which different individuals are fitted.
• Within these concerns, Sociology has the task of
examining the movement of individuals or their
change from one stratum to another within the
“social space”.

19. • This phenomenon is called social mobility.
• Social power formation, the political process,
the education process, the socialization
process, economic structure, human and
industrial production, professions, and several
other phenomena are as well studied in this
area in order to assess how they affect
stratification in the life of a society widening
the gap between the haves and the have-nots.

20. v) Social pathology
• This area of study entails all the observable activities
in society that negatively affects the well being of a
society.
• It includes various forms of deviant behaviour or non-
conformity to the norms of a group, or departure from
the socially agreed and accepted norms of a group.
• This area of sociology examines the kinds of deviant
behaviour exhibited by individuals in a society with
regard to how and to what extent such behaviour
contribute to crimes viz deliquence, drug abuse, sex
offences, truancy, suicide, prostitution, vandalism,
etc.

21. vi) More specific social structures and situations
• Sociology as the science of society studies various
more specific human social structures and institutions
with a view to understanding how such structures and
situations affect the individual and the society as a
whole, viz manufacturing organizations concerned
with social welfare, community activity, health
education, etc.
• In particular sociology examines how the formal and
informal nature of such organizations could affect their
services or functions, the employees, authority flow
within the organization, freedom of association, etc.

22. d) Branches of Sociology
• Given the wide variety of subject-matter that
sociology deals with, sociologists have shown
interest in general sociology through specializing
in one or two specific areas once the general
groundwork has been completed.
• The result of this is that sociology has been
subdivided into several branches commensurate
with the specializations.
• Today sociologists recognize subdivisions of
sociology into distinct branches such as:

23. i) Sociological Theory
• This branch of sociology attempts to provide
generalizations concerning social phenomena
such as: how and why did classes come to be
formed in society? Why do people in society
behave as they do?
• In other words, sociological theory attempts to
organize facts, ideas, concepts and principles so
that we are able to explain the various ways
society is structured and the patterns of
behaviour in society.

24. • Three main sociological theories are used to
view a society. These are:
- The structural – functional theory
- The conflict theory
- The symbolic interaction theory
• We shall discuss these theories at a later
stage.

25. ii) Historical Sociology
• This is a specialized branch of sociology which
tries to understand a contemporary society
through studying its past (with regard to its past
events and activities).
• For instance, Historical sociology may
systematically study the past events and
activities of a particular society in order to
discover the genesis and the development of a
particular way of life being practiced in that
contemporary society.

26. iii) Sociology of the Family
• This is a well developed branch of Sociology
which studies the family as a basic social
institution in any society.
• This branch examines the family in terms of its
evolution as an institution, its structure,
functions, problems, values, ways of bringing up
children, education approaches, its significance
within the society, relationship with the wider
society, and various other concerns.

27. iv) Sociology of Education
• This is also a well developed branch of sociology
which examines an important social activity and
institution in many societies.
• It systematically analyzes, describes or explains
education with regard to its social use and
significance in society; its relationship with
other social institutions of a society; its impact
or influence on a society; its inherent social
problems; the social relationships and
organization in schools; teacher – parent
relationship; and the teaching as a profession.

28. v) Sociology of Religion
• It examines the institution of religion (viz
church) in relation to other social institutions
in a society.
• Sociology of religion studies the context of
religion not only as a source of beliefs and
ritual practices but also in terms of how it
influences the society and it is influenced by
it.

29. vi) Other smaller areas or sub-sections
• In addition to the branches discussed above other
smaller areas but highly specialized, continue to take
roots.
• There are now branches like industrial sociology,
medical sociology, military sociology, human sociology
and demography, sociology of language, sociology of
art and literature, political sociology and mathematical
sociology.
• Task: Observe a school setting of your own choice, and
using what you have studied, indicate the featurer that
make it subject matter of sociology.

30. 2. Sociology of Education
a) Meaning
• Sociology of Education is a field of study which
examines social factors and interactions
which influence education and the
educational process.
• It is a discipline which attempts to analyze
systematically the sociological aspects,
processes and patterns within the
educational phenomenon.

31. • Sociology of Education attempts to study and
explain concepts, activities and problems which
are sociological ni nature but emanating from,
and associated with all situations of education.
• Education involves various stakeholders:
students, parents, administrators, politicians,
investors, the State, international organizations,
human rights groups, the media and other groups
with special interest in the education process.

32. • In combination or separately these interest
groups make up a combination of forces that
influence relationships, interactions,
behaviours, decisions and thoughts that affect
the school setting.
• It is the study of these interactions of social
forces that sociology of education is meant for.

33. b) Origin and Development
• The early prominents of Sociology of
Education were academicians, John Dewey
and Emile Durkheim who pointed out that
education comprises themes, conditions and
practices meriting sociological studies.
• Dewey’s ideas began to take shape in the
early 20th century following what may be
called an appreciation of the relationship
between the school and the society.

34. • Dewey’s concern about education began to grow
after observing how fast the simple community
life structures in his time were changing.
• The main institutions entrusted with the child’s
education viz the church and the school, were
often unable to cope with these changes. They
were inadequate in preparing a child to meet the
new social ways adapted by changing society.

35. • To avert the situation Dewey advocated a
practical way of educating a child that would
reflect a sense of comunity life as expressed in
the interests, hopes, needs and expectations of
the larger society.
• On his part, Emile Durkheim, in his efforts to
discover the meeting point between sociology
and education, he portrayed education as being
social in character, origin, and function; a social
fact and activity and a socializing process.

36. • Durkheim delineated the work of education
as being of transforming what he called the
“asocial being” into a “social being” capable
of living in harmony in a society, benefiting it
and from it.
• Other proponents with equally persuasive
ideas about the sociological nature of
education were:

37. • Sir Fred Clerke (1930s), whose views about the
sociological approach to education came in the
form of his unreserved acceptance of the fact
that sociology can concretely be applied in the
planning of an education programme geared
towards producing citizens whith characters of
the type preferred in the society.
• Hence, for him, the content of education should
have the common purpose of deliberately
training individuals for “citizen consciousness”.

38. • In 1940, a German sociologist by the name Karl
Mannheim came to view education as “social
technique” which could be used to socially
control the society and whose programme could
also be used to improve the society.
• In the 1950s, W.A.Stewart proposed a training
course for teachers which would begin with a
basic knowledge of sociological issues viz.social
structure, control and others before delving into
the application of sociology in education.

39. • Stewart, also argued a look into (reassess) school
curriculum, the classroom, discipline and order,
the teacher, the educational institutions and
many other concerns, of both sociological and
educational values.
• Besides these individual efforts towards the
awareness of the social nature of education,
there were significant movements (joint forces)
that strengthened further development of
sociology of education.

40. • Among the movements were the philosophers
who provided an organic view of the society.
• In this view the institutions found in the
society were the organs doing specialized
tasks and among them was education which
had the specialized job of training and
preparing all members of society for the
proper responsibilities.

41. • Another movement was the institutionalization of
Sociology of Education. This movement made its
appearence in the 20th cent.in a form of courses
for the training of teachers in such institutions as
Columbia and Stanford Universities.
• Further it came in the form of an organization
(National Society for the Study of Educational
Society in USA) which began in 1928 to sponsor
research work and to publish the results in its
professional journal.

42. • With the help of these movement, it was
possible for educators to begin understanding
various problems of education that presented
sociological implications, as well as, applying
the findings of the researches to solve other
problems viz community relationships with
the school, truancy, effects of social problems
on school achievement, etc.

43. • Currently, great emphasis is being put on the
necessity for every educator to realize the
importance of the social side of education.
• This has given the Sociology of Education a new
impetus in its expansion.
• Worldwide, Universities, and Colleges dealing
with the training of teachers and educators have
developed syllabi which incorporate both the
practical and theoretical aspects related to a
sociological understanding of educational
problems.

44. 3. Prominent Sociologists Influencing Education
a) Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1895)
• He was more concerned with the concept of
socialization.
• He defined socialization as the process through which
an individual becomes fit for cooperative group living
and participate fully in social activities.
• It involves: ability to adapt oneself to new social
situations (accepting the values of others); ability to
influence others (lead and directing others – imparting
one’s values to them); ability to cooperate with others,
and to function efficiently in competitive environment
without excessive tension or frustration.

45. • Durkheim portrayed socialization as a gradual process
which takes place through oearning social skills and
values – starting in the family then in school and later
in the larger society.
• Other main concepts in Durkheim’s thought are:
• Social facts – qualities of groups that are external to
individual members yet constrain their thinking and
behaviour.
• Collective consciousness – common values, outlooks,
interpretation of events, languages and in general
identical ways of thinking that group members typically
share.

46. • Anomy – a state of confusion that occurs
when people loose sight of the shared rules
and values that give order and meaning to
their lives.
• In such unhealthy situation, the social order
breaks down, people are no longer guided by
widely shared rules and pathological
behaviours emerges.

47. Application of Durkheims ideas to education
• About the school in particular, Durkheim says that, the
task of the school is to develop in the child the values,
intellectual and physical skills demanded by the
society.
• Education is therefore a social phenomenon -
education influences society and conversely society is
influenced by education.
• It is society as a whole that determines the ideals that
education realizes, on the other hand education
perpetuates the homogeneity and specialization that is
necessary of society’s survival.

48. b) Max Weber (1864 – 1920)
• He was concerned with social organization. The
central concept in describing any modern
organization according to Weber is
“bureaucracy”.
• It involves the following characteriastics:
- A hierarchical structure of leadership and the
exercising of authority from the top to the base.
- Fixed areas of jurisdiction which defines who is
competent to deal with what.

49. - An established system of supervision to ensure
appeals and accountability in case something
goes wrong.
- Expertise – possession of knowledge and skills
of office procedure.
- An extensive number of written rules and
regulations intended to promote
organizational efficiency.

50. Other concepts in Weber’s works
• “Verstehen” – interpretive understanding. To
understand people we are concerned with,
according to Weber, we must be able to ‘stand
under’ them; to step in their shoes and see the
word through their eyes.
• Culture values shape human society. A sociologist
must therefore be careful not to let his own
cultural biases interfere with his efforts to see the
world through the eyes of the people he is
interested in.

51. Application of Weber’s ideas
• The concept of bureaucracy is becoming quite
vissible in the school community.
• Bureaucracy can be spoken of the administrative
structure of the school.
• Schools can no longer be considered as larger
families founded on mere love and good will.
• As educational institutions they are growing
larger in size and their structures are becoming
more complex and bureaucratic.
• This affects the nature of the inner relationship
and organization of the school community.

52. • The headmaster and the deputy head are
becoming more and more remote from pupils.
• School standards and regulations can no
longer accommodate individual differences,
which affect the qualityof personal
relationships.
• All this affects the bureaucracy of the school.

53. c) Karl Marx (1818 – 1883)
• Marx’s main themes were social differenciation,
stratification and mobility.
• He argued that, society is never by itself a
homogeneous mass of identincal individuals, but
rather tends to differentiate itself internally into
categories or classes.
• The most elementary forms of internal social
differentiation is the diversity of socio-
economical positions occupied by individuals or
groups within every society.

54. • Thus individuals or groups are located “somewhere in
social space” and such location differentiate them from
the rest.
• The extremes of social categories or classes in Marx’s
time were described as bourgeoisie and proletariat.
The former owns the means of production while the
later have their own labour to sell as workers.
• The mere gap btn the classess according to Marx arises
a state of opposition called thesis-antithesis that
inevitably triggers class struggle for equality of
opportunity called synthesis.

55. • Marx viewed the universal history of societies as
the struggle for societal rewards between
dominant groups (bourgeoisie) and the exploited
group (proletariat). The former owns wealth and
the latter are in extreme poverty.
• Now societies made of such contesting groups
(thesis-antithesis) change over time because
every social order and economic system develops
within itself internal contradictions which grow
till the existing order fails to accommodate it and
therefore it is forced to change (overturned).

56. • The result is a new order (synthesis) which is superior
to the former. The struggle continues until there are no
more classes (a classless society)
Social Differentiation and Education
• Society today is more complex than that of Marx’s
millieu, but his clasical concepts of viz social
consciousness and class struggle can stil find a
meaningful interpretation in our time – btn the
overprivileged and the underprivileged.

57. • In the educational system, it can mean the
difference between those who can afford good
schools and those who cannot.
• The means of production may well be translated
in terms of educational resources and facilities
(the distribution of schools, teachers and
libraries).
• The struggle depicted by Marx can refer to the
clamouring for equality of opportunity in the
education system basing on gender and social,
physical, and mental disabilities.

58. • A classless society in the educational context is
expressed in equal opportunity for all in educational
institutions.
• In the wider society, classlessness is expressed by fair
distribution of educational resources such as schools,
books and teachers.
Reflection: Is modern society becoming more, or less
classless?
• Infact society is becoming increasingly stratified with
the gap between overprivileged and underprivileged
widening as expressed by the presence of skilled, semi-
skilled and unskilled workers.

59. • As well, the distinguishing factor between the differnt
classes has remained significant due to great inequality
with regard to working conditions, payment, chances
of promotion and freedom for personal initiative.
• The social classes are still determined by such factos
as:
- The amount of money earned, the wealth possessed
and the attitude to life.
- The level of education, type of job, social role, style of
living and the status that goes with it.
- The degree of power and influence over other people
implied in the job.

60. • As Blakemore and cooksey pointen out in their
book ‘Asociology of Education for Africa’ in which
several kinds of education inequalities are
identified:
- Not all children have the same chance of going to
school; there are wide differences in performance
btn children, some failing exams, some dropping
out, others repeating classes before completing.
- Moreover, schools and colleges vary widely in
status, quality and market value of the
qualifications obtained.

61. • Not withstanding these weaknesses and others in
its system, education has remained to be one of
the most instruments of social mobility (upward
movement in the social space) particularly when
reinforced by such factors as: personal
determination; motivation and encouragement in
schools; community’s belief in education as a key
to success; and the desire to emulate those
personalities in society who have succeeded
because of education.

62. d) George Mead (1920)
• Mead belong to the school of thought called
constructivism. His main sociological theme was
social cohesion. He tried to examine the factors
that keep people together.
• According to Mead, symbols are the foundation
stones to human social cohesion and order
(whereas others have relied on biological drives,
economic interests, quest for power and need for
survival).
• Those who sustain Mead’s theory are called
‘symbolic interactionists’.

63. • According to the symbolic interactionists, symbols,
language and communication must be examined if we
are to gain any understanding of our uniquely social
nature.
• As they advocate, the first step in beginning to
comprehend the cohesive nature of symbols is to
recognize that symbols can infact construct a reality of
their own.
• Researchers such as Solomon Asch provided a clear
demonstration of the capacity of language (symbolic or
verbal) to influence perception and thereby ‘create’ a
unique reality (Cuzzor, 1980)

64. • From their experiments, the following principle was
stated “in unstructured settings the introduction of
symbolic structures can order perception so that the
symbolic order is perceived as a real event”.
• In other words, where there are no external constraints
on our perception, the symbolic modification under
which we subject reality, can become the total reality.
• Eg. Character may be established in part or sometimes
wholly through the symbolic means of clothing.

65. • A bad person in good clothes is immediately
perceived as good. The ‘reality’ of the character
of the person beneath the person is not directly
apparent.
• Special about symbols is that they do not elicit a
particular response like does signs, instead they
must be interpreted by those engaged in
symbolic exchange.
• This is to say that where there is a a sharing of
symbolic content, there interaction is relatively
ordered and easy.

66. • Where symbolic content is not shared then
interaction is considerably inhibited.
• Symbols are therefore of special importance
for the formation of communication. It is
through language (symbolic or verbal) that
humans have been able to form the most
elaborated and unusual social and cultural
systems on earth.

67. Symbols and education
• Though their studies Newson and Plowden have
established that linguistic inadequacy affects the
elliciting of intellectual potential.
• This is because we understand our world through
our perceptions and through the organization of
our perceptions by means of language.
• We frame our concepts according to our
vocabulary, our understanding of the meaning of
words and our competence in syntactical
expression.

68. • Language objectifies reality. The continuous flow of
experience is firmed up, and stabilized into identifiable
objects by means of language.
• The worldy objects become organized by naming each
one. And beyond naming, the organization goes on to
individual meaningful relations between various
objects when we form sentences.
• In other words, language structures reality by
objectifying and by establishing meaningful relations in
the human environment. It populates the social reality
by distinct beings.

69. • Focusing on the school, in the process of
learning, the spoken language has a central
role to play.
• A child brought up with an “elaborate code”
will be able more competently the meaning of
his cognitive world. He has a language
structure capable of articulating and
structuring his perceptions of the world and
society arround him.

70. • Elaborate code is characterized by:
- Sentence construction which is more complex,
introducing a greater variety of stress and logical
modification.
- Propositions are employed not merely to express
special contiguity but also logical and temporal
relations
- There is an increasing ability to impersonalize
ideas, statements and opinions by the
introduction of impersonal pronouns.

71. • The elaborated code is explicit; statements are
completed, and ideas are mediated and
modified through the actual structure of the
sentence.
• On the other hand inadequate language
(symbolic or verbal) is characterized by the
use of “restricted code” in which selection and
manipulation of words is severely restricted.

72. Some of the characteristics of restricted code
are:
• Short comments, commands and questions are
repeatedly used.
• There is very little competence in developing or
sustaining a theme with sequential speech.
• There is limited use of adjectives and adverbs
indicating lack of imaginative and creative power
linguistically.
• There is general inability to impersonalize or to create
conditional statements by the use of impersonal
pronouns viz “it” and “one”
• The symbolism used is of very low order, and there is a
general incapacity to verbalize abstractions

73. Symbolic interaction in the classroom and its
effects on performance
• The task of education is deliberately to intervene in the
language habits of the restricted code pupils in order
that those who have higher innate ability may be
facilitated through the media to realize that potential.
• As well, symbolism employed by teachers when
interacting with students in the classroom can have
lasting effects on the students self-image and
performance.
• Teachers do employ frequently both verbal and non-
verbal symbols in interacting with pupils viz. Facial
expression and tone of voice.

74. • But teachers as well use verbal expressions in
assigning labels to the students viz exceptional,
more curious, fast/slow learners, etc.
• Now, according to the study done by Rosenthal
and Jacobson (1988), students self-image can be
highly affected, positively or negatively, by the
way in which the teachers interact symbollically
with them.
• If they are affected positively, then there is a
great probability of exhibiting the greatest
improvement in performance.

75. e) Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778)
• Rousseau advocated the Theory of Social
Contract.
• In the opening statement of his book “On the
Social Contract” Rousseau says ‘a human is born
free’.
• But every person places his/her personal will and
his/her options under the general will of the
collective majority through acceptance of the
process by which people in the aggregate make
decisions.

76. • In this way arises the concept of “the public
person” who is formed by the will of all other
persons and who embodies the sovereignity of
the public institution.
• This sovereignity is implemented through
election of citizens to the Board of Education.
• But when a person gives over his willto the
general will, in reality, he gives this personal will
to no one person. Hence, in doing so individuals
lose nothing that they do not gain over others
through the same process.

77. • However, it should be noted that what the
majority wants may not always be good and
just. What is important is therefore not the
outcome of the process, and the process
tends to be self-correcting.
• For instance, when the representative of the
majority makes bad decisions, he will
eventually be replaced in subsequent election.

78. Implications of The Social Contract to
Educational Leadership.
• The Implications of Rousseau’s Social Contract
Theory for Educational Leadership stems from
his notion of human freedom.
• Goverment which formulates educational
policies, receives its mandate from the will of
the people as conceptualized through an
agreement that preserves their freedom while
entrusting to it certain responsibilities that
foster the common good of all people.

79. • Schools as government agencies exists for the
general welfare of the citizenry and as such
have an obligation not only to provide the
best education but also to involve the entire
community in developing educational policy if
compact is to be fully realized.
• Educational administrators are therefore
charged with developing two-way
communication with all constituents.

80. • Realizing that no school operates in vacuum,
successful school leadership requires
administrators to blend the culture of the
school with the culture of the community
from which the children come.
• Cultural analysis should be carried out to try
to identify the history, values, visions, rituals,
traditions, beliefs and heros of various
cultures from which the children come.

81. • This knowledge helps teachers, staff members
and administrators to develop the curriculum
and establish instructional strategies in
relation to students learning patterns and
interests.
• In this way the bond of social contract can be
strengthened.