2. Identification
Identification is the determination of a person
/indivisuality of a person based on certain physical
characteristics.
Identification means establishment of indivisuality of a
person.
Establishing identity of a person whether dead or alive is
of paramount importance. This is because an individual
exists as an entity in society, and is dealt with as such by
the legal system
3. Types of identification
1. Complete/ Total identification: Scientific analysis of
different feature or data ultimately pinpoint of a
subject. (e.g. Mr XY)
2. Incomplete/ partial identification: Recording of certain
information or data, which will ultimately help
complete or total identification.
4. Need of identification
1. In living person: Cases of amnesia, unconscious,
imposters, issue of identity cards, passports etc. Specific
ages in penal code – infanticide, criminal responsibility,
rape, consent, domestic employment
2. In dead Person: To give information to surviving
relatives, statistical and legal purposes, registration of
death, for burial or cremation, discharge property, claim
life insurance, hold inquests, facilitate police
investigations etc.
3. skeletonized material
4. Intact fresh corpses, decomposed corpses, mutilated
and dismembered corpses.
5. Data required for identification
1. Race, Ethnicity, religion, nationality
2. Sex
3. Age
4. Satutre, general development & body built
5. Complexion
6. Hair
7. Eyes
8. Congenital & acquired peculiarities
- Malformation
- Birth marks
6. Data required for identification
- Moles
- Scar marks
- Tattoo marks
- Occupational marks
- Deformilties
- Disease & wounds
9. Features present in the teeth
10. Photography
11. Anthropometric measurement
12. Finger print
13. DNA records
14. Teeth & bite marks
7. Reasons for establishing identity
In Civil case:
• Marriage
• Inheritance
• Passport
• Insurance claims
• Disputed sex
• Missing person
• Identification of bodies for burial purposes
8. Reasons for establishing identity
In criminal case:
• Accused of assault
• Rape
• murder
• Impersonation
• Interchange of newborn babies in hospital
9. Race
Race: Race is a biological concept, which denotes
subspecies of human being or breed or genital trait, united
by a common heridity
Types:
1. Caucaseans (White)
2. Negroes ( Black)
3. Mongoloids (Yellow)
10. Determination of the race of a person
1. Complexion: of limited value. Black, white, brown
skin.
2. Eyes - dark in Indians, blue or grey in Europeans.
3. Clothes- dress may be helpful. e.g. Traditional indian
dress(dhoti & sari)
4. Hair: Indian- Black & fine
Chinese- Black & thick
Blacks- Wooly, short & curly
European- fair, light brown, reddish or blonde
11. Determination of the race of a person
5. Lips: Black have thick lips & slightly everted
6. Skeleton: the cephalic index (C.I)
Cephalic Index :
(Maximum breadth of the skull / Max.length of
skull)×100
C.I. Type of skull Race
70-75 Dolico-cephalic Pure negros, aryans
75-80 Mesati-cephalic Europeans & Chinese
80-95 Brachy-cephalic Mongolian
12. Sex
Sex: Sex is the characteristics that differentiate male &
female in most plants and animals.Sex refers to biological
differences; chromosomes, hormonal profiles, internal and
external sex organs.(e.g. Male, Female, Intersex)
Gender: Gender describes the characteristics that a
society or culture delineates as masculine or feminine.
To summaries:
'man' = male sex+ masculine social role
'woman' = female sex + feminine social role`
13. Determination of sex of a person
1. Physical features:
Sex Male Female
Primary
Sexual
Character
Presence of testes, vas deference,
prostate & seminal vesicle.
Presence of ovary, uterus &
adnexa
Secondary
Sexual
Character
• Presence of facial & chest
hair, penis
• Greater muscular development
• Shoulder-broader than hip
• Waist- ill-defined
• Breast not developed
• Gluteal region- flatter
• Thigh- cylindrical
• Absence of facial & chest
hair, presence of vagina.
• Less muscular development
• Shoulder- Narrower than hip
• Waist- well-defined
• Breast- developed
• Gluteal region- Full & round
• Thigh- Conical
14. Determination of sex of a person
2. Radiological studies of bones: by differentiating
features of bones in male & female.
3. Histological examination:
Microscopic study of sex chromatin
Detection of barr body & davidson body
4. Dressing: Not always reliable
5. Gonadal biopsy:
Testes- Presence or absence of sperm
Ovary- Periodic discharge of ovum occurs or not
4. Hormonal study: In intersex cases
15. Barr body & Davidson body
Barr Body: Females shut off one of their X chromosomes
during embryonic development. The inactivated X
chromosome is called a Barr body and is sometimes
referred to as sex chromatin(small pleno convex mass of
chromatin)
Davidson body: In Neutrophils of female(sex
chromosome pattern is XX) there are spherical compact
masses extended from one lobe of the nucleus by a
slender neck like structure, giving a drumstick appearence
to the whole thing, is called davidson body. It appears
upto 6% of the cell. This is absent in male
16. Determination of sex in a mutilated body
1. Presence or absence of the facial & body hair
2. Distribution of pubic hair
3. Presence of breast or other sexual organ
4. Shape of shoulder, hip, waist, butock, forearm & thigh
5. Toughness & delicacy of the skin
6. Predominance of musculatuere (male) & subcutaneous
fatty tissue (Female)
7. Characteristics of bone
17. Concealed sex
Concealed sex: Criminal may concealed their sex to avoid
detection, by chnging dress or other method. This can be
detected by physical examination
18. Intersex
Intersex: It is an intermingling in one indivisual of characters
of both sexes in varying degrees, including physical form,
reproductive organ & sexual behaviour. It results from some
defect in the embryonic development.
Types of intersex:
1. Gonadal agenesis: Testes or ovary have never develpoed
2. Gonadal dysgenesis: External sexual structures are pesent,
but at puberty testes or the ovaries fail to develop. It is 2
types:
Klinfelter`s syndrome: (47,XXY)
Turner`s syndrome: (45, XO)
19. Intersex
3. True harmaphroditism: one testis & one ovary or two
testes & two ovaries are present
4. Pseudo- harmaphroditism:
*Male Pseudo- harmaphroditism: Nuclear sex is XY.
but sex organ & sexual characteristics deviate to
female form due to testicular feminization
Female Pseudo- harmaphroditism: Nuclear sex is XX.
but sex organ & sexual characteristics deviate to
male form due to adrenal hyperplasia.
20. Age
Age before birth: It is the from conception to the delivary
of a foetus.
Age after birth: It si the time from birth to present.
Total age: It is the summation of age before birth and age
after birth.
21. Factors for determination of age of a person
In post natal life:
• Teeth
• Ossification of bones
• Secondary sex characteristics
• General development in case of children
• Some laboratory test
In pre natal life:
• Hasse`s formula
• X-ray
• USG
• Ht of the uterus
22. Data for age determination of an adolescent girl
1. Physical/ morphological feature:
Primary Sexual Character :
- Presence of ovary, uterus & adnexa
Secondary sexual character :
- General configuaration & develpoment
(waist, shoulder, thigh)
- Height & weight
- Distribution of body hair
- Breast develpoment
23. Data for age determination of an adolescent girl
- Changes in the external genitalia
- Changes in tha voice
2. Menstrual history
3. Odontological history: Eruption of teeth
4. Radiological evidance: Ossification activities &
growth of the bones
24. Medicolegal importance of age determination
In civil cases:
• Identification
• Marriage contract
• Impotence & sterility
• Attainment of majority
• Eligibility for employment
25. Medicolegal importance of age determination
In criminal cases:
• Criminal Responsibilities
• Judicial punishment
• Rape
• Kidnapping
• Evidance(Competency as witness)
• Infanticide
• Criminal abortion
26. Hasse`s formula
It is a rough method of calculating the apprx age of a
foetus. By this rule-
• For the first 5 months of the foetus-- √ length of foetus
in cm is the age of the foetus in lunar month.
• After 5 month– 1/5th of the length of the foetus in cm
is the age of the foetus in lunar month
27. Tattoo mark/ Tattooing
Tattoo mark: Tattoo marks are designed made in the skin
by multiple small puncture wounds with needles dipped in
coloring matter.
Dyes used in tattooing:
• Indigo
• Cobalt
• Carbon
• Cinnabar or vermilion
• Prussian blue
• Indian ink
30. Tattooing
How tattoo mark can be erased:
• Surgical method
• Electrolysis
• Caustic substance
• Laser beam
31. Medicolegal importance of tattooing
1. Identification: Race. Nationality, occupation, religion
2. Social status of a person
3. In case of dead bodies, if the tattoo mark appears to
have been obliterated, then the pigment can be
detected in the nearest lymph node
4. In decomposed bodies, the invisible mark become
prominent on removal of epidermis
5. Mental make up & desire of a person can be known
6. One may try to conceal his identity by artificial
obliteration of the tattoo mak
7. It may cause infection, sepsis, ulcer, keloid formation
32. Dactylography/ Fingerprinting system
Dactylography/ Fingerprinting system is the study of
fingerprint as a method of identification
Or, It is the study of ridge pattern in the skin
Or, it is the process if taking the impression of papillary or
friction ridges of the fingerprint, for the pupose of
identification of a person
Types of fingerprint:
• Loop -65%
• Whorl- 25%
• Arch- 7%
• Composite- 2-3%
33. Medicolegal importance of fingerprint
• Recognition of impression left at a crime scene.
• Identification of the person suffering from loss of
memory.
• Identification in case of accidental exchange of
newborn infants.
• Prevention of impersonation.
• To maintain identity records.
• Cheques, bank notes & other legal documents can bear
a fingerprint.
34. DNA Finger printing/DNA testing/DNA
typing/DNA profiling
DNA fingerprinting is a technique involving chemically
dividing the DNA into fragments which form a unique
pattern an then matching the ‘ídentity profile’with the
pattern obtained from similarly testing a suspect`s blood
specimen
In 1985, Dr Alec Jeffery developed DNA fingerprinting
It has now been used successfully in many crime and
paternity cases in worldwide.
35. Process
• The process begins with a sample of an individual's
DNA (typically called a "reference sample").
• The most desirable method of collecting a reference
sample is the use of a buccal swab, as this reduces the
possibility of contamination.
• When this is not available may need to be used to
collect a sample of blood, saliva, semen, or other
appropriate fluid or tissue from personal items (e.g.
toothbrush, razor, etc.) or from stored samples (eg:
banked sperm or biopsy tissue).
36. Process
1. Isolation of DNA: DNA must be recovered from cells or tissue.
Only a small amount of blood, hair, or skin is needed
2. Cutting, sizing, and sorting :
Restriction enzymes are used to cut the DNA at specific places.
In a process called electrophoresis, DNA pieces are sorted out by
their size.
Then the DNA pieces are passed through a gel made of seaweed
agarose.
37. Process
3. Transfer of DNA to nylon:The DNA pieces are
transferred to a nylon sheet by placing the sheet on the gel
and soaking them overnight.
4+5. Probing: Adding radioactive or colored probes to
the nylon sheet produces a pattern, which is the DNA
Fingerprint. Each probe only sticks to one or two specific
places on the sheet.
6. DNA fingerprint: The final DNA fingerprint is built
by using several probes. It resembles bar codes.
39. Importance of DNA fingerprinting
• To identify a person in cases where conventional
means of identification are not possible e.g. charred
body
• To link a suspect to a crime scene or victim.
• In disputed paternity/maternity cases
• In rape and sexual offences
• Mass disasters
• Blood or tissue mix-ups in clinical pathology
• Ritual murders ( human sacrifice)
40. Superimposition
Superimposition is the technique applied to determine
whether the skull is that of the person in the photograph
– Technique applied to determine whether the skull is that
of the person in the photograph.
– The photograph need not be front view of the face, even
lateral and semi-lateral view of face can be useful
– A recent photograph is much preferred.
43. Definition of forensic radiology/Imaging
Forensic radiology/imaging is a branch of Forensic
Medicine which deals with X-ray examination/imaging
for determination of age, detection of fetus, diagnosis of
head injuries , live birth etc.
44. Use/Importance of forensic radiology
1.Age determination : For determination of age skiagrams are
taken in A/P view of the shoulder, elbow, wrist, pelvis, hip,
knee & ankle joints & skull.
Fairly accurate estimate of age is possible in case of a child
or an adolescent.
2.Detection of foetus /Diagnosis of pregnancy : X-ray makes
absolute diagnosis of pregnancy after 16the week when the
ossification centers have become well developed. At a later
stage, it may be of value in the diagnosis of twin pregnancy,
foetal malformation or a dead foetus.
3.Missile detection :
4.Diagnosis of head injury & other fractures :
5.Diagnosis of live birth : Radiological demonstration of air in
the stomach & intestine is a confirmatory sign of
respiration.
45. ADULT SEX CAN BE DETERMINED FROM SKELETON.
ACCORDING TO KROGMAN ACCURACY IN
SEXING ADULT
SKELETAL REMAINS IS:-
•ENTIRE SKELETON 100%
•PEVIS + SKULL 98%
•PELVIS ALONE 95%
•SKULL ALONE 90%
•LONG BONES ALONE 80%
46. Determination of Sex
• Crests and ridges more
pronounced in males (A, B, C)
• Chin significantly more square
in males (E)
• Jaw (I, E), mastoid process wide
and robust in males
• Forehead slopes more in males (F)
48. Determination of Sex from skull
trait Male Female
GENERAL APPEARANCE LARGER,LONGER(DOLICHOCRA
NIA)
SMALLER,LIGHTER,WALLS
THINNER(BRACHYCRANIA)
CAPACITY 1500 to1550 ml 1350 to 1400 ml
FOREHEAD STEEPER,LESS ROUNDED VERTICAL,ROUNDED,FULL,
GABELLA MORE PROMINENT SMALL OR ABSENT
ORBITS SQUARE,LOW SET,SMALLER &
ROUNDED MARGINS
ROUNDED,HIGHER
SET,LARGER&
SHARP MARGINS
SUPRAORBITAL RIDGES PROMINENT LESS PROMINENT
ZYGOMATIC ARCH MORE PROMINENT LESS PROMINENT
NASAL APERTURE HIGHER,NARROWER LOWER & BROADER
FRONTAL&PARIETAL
EMINENCE
SMALL LARGER
PALATE LARGE,BROAD,U-SHAPED SMALL,PARABOLA
TEETH LARGER SMALLER
OCCIPITAL CONDYLE LARGE SMALL
49. Determination of Sex from mandible
trait Male Female
GENERAL SIZE LARGER & THICKER SMALLER &
THINNER
CHIN SQUARE ROUNDED
BODY WEIGHT GREATER AT
SYMPHISIS
SMALLER AT
SYMPHYSIS
ASCENDING
RAMUS
GREATER BREADTH SMALLER BREADTH
ANGLE OF BODY &
RAMUS
LESS OBTUSE(<125) MORE OBTUSE
CONDYLES LARGER SMALLER
MENTAL
TUBERCLES
LARGE &
PROMINENT
INSIGNIFICANT
51. Determination of age from bones
Determination of Age from Bones
• Ages 0-5: teeth are best – forensic
odontology.
FONTANALLES:
• Lat & occip, fontanalles - closes within 2
months.
• Post. Fontanalles - closes 6-8 months.
• Ant. Fontanalles – closes 18 – 24 months.
52. Age determination of a person is on the basis of data
1. Physical examination
2.Odontological examination
3.Radiological examination
• Appearance & fusion activities of hundreds of
ossification centers depend on race, geographic
distribution & sex. Ossification may also be influenced
by food habit, nutritional status, disease, hormonal &
metabolic disorders, physical activity etc.
• Most important age for forensic radiology 12-20 years.
53. Age determination of a person is on the basis of data
Most important age for forensic radiology 12-20years.
Rule of thumb for age determination on basis of fusion of
the ossification centers of joints-
1.Shoulder joint -15-17
2.Elbow joint -13-16
3.Wrist joint-16-18
4.Ankle joint -14-16
5.Knee joint-15-17
6. Hip joint -15-17
7.Illiac crest -18-20 years
54. Age changes in different bone
1.Mandible
2.Symphyseal surface of the pubis
3.Scapula
4.Vertebrae
5.Skull bones
56. Type of teeth
Type of teeth -2 sets
1.Temporary/deciduous/milk teeth -20
2.Permanent teeth -32 (28+4)
• Name of the teeth : Central incisor, lateral incisor,
canine, 1st & 2nd premolar, 1st to 3rd molar
57. Age determination by odontology
Chronology of appearance of temporary teeth
Lower CI -6th M
Upper CI-7th M
Upper LI -8th M
Lower LI- 9th M
1st Ms -1 Y
Canines-1.5Y
2nd Ms-2 Y
58. Age determination by odontology
Chronology of appearance of permanent teeth
1st Ms-6th Y
CIs-7th Y
LIs-8th Y
1st PMs-9th Y
2nd PM-10th Y
Canines-11th Y
2nd Ms-12-14th Y
3rd Ms -17-25 Y